Women and Justice: Keywords

Legislation

Kärntner Antidiskriminierungsgesetz (K-ADG) (Kärnten Anti - Discrimination Act) (2020)

Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Sexual harassment

Among other aspects, this act aims at ensuring gender equality in various areas of life, for instance, in the workplace. It addresses issues like equal opportunities for men and women as well as sexual harassment in the workplace. It also lists the authorities a person may turn to if they feel they are being discriminated against. Notable is the shift of the burden of proof in Section 25: a discrimination claimant only has to credibly substantiate the claim, whereas the defending party has to prove that there was no discrimination.

Dieses Gesetz zielt unter anderem darauf ab, die Gleichstellung der Geschlechter in verschiedenen Lebensbereichen zu gewährleisten, zum Beispiel am Arbeitsplatz. Es behandelt Themen wie Chancengleichheit für Männer und Frauen sowie sexuelle Belästigung am Arbeitsplatz. Außerdem werden die Behörden genannt, an die sich eine Person wenden kann, wenn sie sich diskriminiert fühlt. Bemerkenswert ist die Umkehr der Beweislast in Abschnitt 25: Ein Kläger, der eine Diskriminierung geltend macht, muss seine Behauptung lediglich glaubhaft machen, während die beklagte Partei beweisen muss, dass keine Diskriminierung vorlag.

Bundes-Gleichbehandlungsgesetz (B-GlBG) (Federal Equality Act) (1993)

Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Sexual harassment

The Federal Equality Act aims at creating equality throughout various service agreements (see Section 1) the Federal Government might have with individuals. The main body no. 1 (1. Hauptstück) focuses on the equal treatment of men and women (Section 3). Section 7(2) states that job advertisements should be written in such a way that they equally refer to both men and women and do not contain details that could lead to the conclusion that the advertisement is only for one gender. Sections 8 and 8a define sexual and gender-based harassment and emphasize that they constitute gender discrimination. Section 11 requires the promotion of equal opportunities for women. Section 11b states that, where women are underrepresented (meaning less than 50% of employees), employers must prioritize women applicants if they are equally well suited for the position as the best-suited male applicant until the percentage of employed women reaches at least 50%. Section 11c applies the same rule to job promotions. Section 11d provides that employers must prioritize female employees in participation in training and coaching measures to prepare them to assume higher-ranking and more senior positions.

Das Bundes-Gleichbehandlungsgesetz zielt darauf ab, für alle Dienstverhältnisse, die die Bundesregierung mit Einzelpersonen hat, Gleichheit zu schaffen. Das 1. Hauptstück des Gesetzes fokussiert sich auf die Gleichbehandlung von Mann und Frau (§ 3). § 7 Abs. 2 verlangt, dass Stellenausschreibungen in einer Art und Weise verfasst werden müssen, dass sie sich gleichermaßen an Männer und Frauen wenden und keine Details enthalten, die den Leser zu dem Schluss kommen lassen könnten, dass die Ausschreibung sich nur an ein Geschlecht richtet. § 8 und § 8a betonen, dass eine Diskriminierung auch in einem Fall vorliegt, in dem ein Arbeitnehmer (sexuell) belästigt wird. § 11 enthält ein Frauenförderungsgebot. In diesem Sinne gelten Frauen als unterrepräsentiert, wenn weniger als 50% der Angestellten Frauen sind. Nach § 11b müssen Frauen in unterrepräsentierten Bereichen bei der Bewerberauswahl bevorzugt behandelt werden, wenn sie für die Stelle gleichgeeignet sind wie der bestqualifizierte männliche Bewerber. Dies gilt, bis der Anteil der Frauen in diesem Bereich mindestens 50% beträgt. § 11c wendet diese Regel auch auf Beförderungen an. Nach § 11d sind weibliche Angestellte zur Teilnahme an Aus- und Weiterbildungsmaßnahmen, die zur Übernahme höherwertiger Verwendungen qualifizieren, vorrangig zuzulassen.

Personalkapazitätscontrollingverordnung (PersKapCoVo) (Personnel Capacity Controlling Regulation) (2013)

Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

The legislation shall support planning, execution, and controlling of personnel allocation on the Federal level. Personnel controlling shall ensure, inter alia, gender equality (Article 1 para. 1 no. 2). Therefore, Article 5 provides that federal service authorities shall submit to the chancellor biennially a report detailing the target quota of women holding the highest remuneration levels (para. 2). If the targeted percentage ratios are not met, the relevant federal service authority shall submit to the chancellor an additional report explaining the reasons for such non-compliance by the end of the first quarter of the following year (para. 4).

Dieses Gesetz soll die Planung, Ausführung und der Kontrolle von Personenallokation auf Bundesebene unterstützen. Personalkapazitätskontrolle soll u.a. Geschlechtergleichheit sicherstellen (Art. 1 Abs. 1 Ziff. 2). Hierfür haben die haushaltsleitenden Organe gemäß Artikel 5 dem Bundeskanzler alle zwei Jahre einen Bericht vorzulegen, der detailliert auf die Zielquoten von Frauen in der höchsten Vergütungsklasse eingeht (Abs. 2). Für den Fall, dass die angestrebten Zielanteile nicht erreicht werden, müssen die Organe dem Kanzler bis zum Ende des ersten Quartals des Folgejahres einen Zusatzbericht vorlegen, der die Gründe für das Nichterreichen der Quote angibt (Abs. 4).

Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz (B-VG) (Federal Constitutional Act) (1945)

Gender discrimination

Article 7(1) states that all citizens are equal before the law and prohibits sex-based privileges (among other factors). Article 7(2) states that the federal government and all federal states and municipalities affirm actual equality between women and men. It further stresses that measures to achieve factual equality between women and men are legal. Regarding job titles or academic titles, Article 7(3) requires that the gendered nouns in those titles reflect the gender of the respective holder are in accordance with law. Article 14(6) states that public schools, kindergartens, and similar institutions shall be accessible to all children regardless of sex (among other factors).

Artikel 7 Abs. 1 macht deutlich, dass alle Bürger vor dem Gesetz gleich sind und verbietet gleichzeitig u.a. geschlechterbezogene Privilegien. Nach Artikel 7 Abs. 2 betonen die Bundesregierung, die Bundesstaaten sowie die Gemeinden die Gleichheit von Mann und Frau. Weiterhin betont das Gesetz, dass Maßnahmen, die dem Ziel dienen, eine faktische Gleichstellung von Mann und Frau zu erreichen, rechtmäßig sind. Betreffend Jobbezeichnungen oder akademischer Titel macht Artikel 7 Abs. 3 deutlich, dass eine geschlechterspezifische Anpassung dieser ebenso rechtmäßig ist. Artikel 14 Abs. 6 folgend müssen öffentliche Schulen, Kindergärten und vergleichbare Einrichtungen für alle Kinder egal welchen Geschlechts verfügbar sein.



Gender Equality Act (2014)

Abortion and reproductive health rights, Employment discrimination, Harmful traditional practices, Sexual harassment

The Gender Equality Act promotes gender equality for men and women in all parts of society, and seeks to prohibit and provide redress for sex discrimination, harmful practices (including social, cultural, or religious practices that are physically or sexually harmful) and sexual harassment. Under the Act, persons (and the government) are prohibited from treating people less favorably than they would otherwise due to sex. The law defines and criminalizes sexual harassment, including workplace harassment. Moreover, the law places an affirmative obligation on the government to ensure that employers are developing appropriate procedures and policies to respond to and eliminate issues of workplace sexual harassment. The law also ensures equal access to education at all levels regardless of sex, and affirmatively requires the government to provide equal access. Further, the law provides an affirmative right to sexual and reproductive health, including access to health services and the right to choose whether or not to have a child. A Human Rights Commission in Malawi is tasked with the enforcement of this law, including gender-based quotas for membership on Commission. The penalties for violating the Act include large fines and imprisonment of up to five years.

Constitution of Malawi (2017)

Domestic and intimate partner violence, Employment discrimination, Forced and early marriage, Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general, Property and inheritance rights, Sexual violence and rape

In recognition of the inherent dignity and worth of each human, Article 12 requires that the State and all persons recognize and protect human rights and afford the fullest protection to the rights and views of all individuals, groups, and minorities. All persons have equal status before the law. Limitations of rights are only justifiable insofar as they ensure peaceful human interaction in the context of an open and democratic society. Article 13 requires the State to actively promote the welfare and development of the people by affirmatively adopting legislation and policies to achieve gender equality. This requires: (i) women’s full participation in all spheres of society with opportunities equal to men; (ii) the implementation of nondiscrimination principles and other measures; and (iii) the implementation of policies addressing domestic violence, personal security, maternity benefits, economic exploitation, and rights to property, among other relevant social issues. Article 22 mandates that all members of a family shall enjoy equal respect and shall be protected under law against all forms of neglect, cruelty or exploitation. No person shall be forced to enter into any marriage, and no person over the age of 18 can be prevented from entering into marriage. All provisions of this section apply to civil, customary, and other forms of marriage. Article 24 specifically guarantees that women are entitled to full and equal protection of law, and have the right not to be discriminated against on the basis of gender or marital status. This includes the following rights: (i) equal rights under civil law, including equal capacity in the realms of contracts, property, custody, decision-making regarding children, and acquisition and retaining of citizenship and nationality; and (ii) upon the dissolution of marriage, entitlement to fair disposition of jointly held property and to fair maintenance. Further, any laws that discriminate against women are invalid and legislation must affirmatively be passed to eliminate customs and practices that discriminate against women. This affirmative requirement particularly applies to practices of: sexual abuse, harassment, or violence; discrimination in work, business, or public affairs; and deprivation of property (inherited or otherwise). Article 30 provides that, while all persons have a right to the enjoyment of economic, social, cultural and political development, women in particular shall be given special consideration in regards to this right. The State must take all necessary measures for the realization of this right, including reforms aimed to eradicate social injustice and inequality. Other gender-related provisions include: the prohibition of torture, inhumane, and degrading treatment or punishment (Article 19); Article 20’s ban on all forms of discrimination; the right to education for all people (Article 25); Article 27’s prohibition of slavery, servitude, and forced labor; and Article 31’s requirement that all persons are entitled to fair wages and equal remuneration for equal value work without discrimination of any kind, especially on the basis of gender.

National Education Act of B.E. 2545 (1999) (as amended by the National Education Act, B.E. 2545 (2002)) (2002)

Gender discrimination

The National Education Act provides for Thailand’s educational system’s structure. Under Section 10, all individuals shall have equal rights and opportunities to receive basic education provided by the State for the duration of at least 12 years. Such education, provided on a nationwide basis, shall be of quality and free of charge. This extends to those with physical, mental, emotional, and social deficiencies, and those unable to support themselves or who are otherwise destitute or disadvantaged, where such persons shall have the rights and opportunities to receive basic education specially provided. Original Thai laws available here.



Código Civil y Comercial: Artículos 638-639, 642, 646-647, 654 (Responsabilidades, deberes y derechos de los padres) (2014)

Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Domestic and intimate partner violence

Article 638 defines parental responsibility as the set of parental duties and rights relating to the person and property of the children for the children’s protection, development, and education while they are minors. These responsibilities are governed by three principles set out in article 639: a) the best interests of the child; b) the progressive autonomy of the child based on his or her psychophysical characteristics, aptitudes, and development. With greater autonomy, the representation of the parents in the exercise of the rights of the children diminishes; c) the right of the child to be heard and to have his or her opinion considered based on his or her age and degree of maturity. In the event of a disagreement between parents, article 642 permits either parent to seek relief from a competent judge. The judge must resolve the disagreement through the shortest mechanism provided by local law, after hearing the parents in conjunction with a public prosecutor. If the disagreements continue or if any other disagreement occurs that seriously obstructs the exercise of parental responsibility, the judge may: (1) assign parental responsibility in whole or in part to one of the parents, or (2) distribute their duties among them, for a period not exceeding two years. The judge may also order interdisciplinary intervention measures and submit the disagreement for mediation. Article 646 states that the duties of the parents are to: a) take care of and live with the child, provide food and education; b) consider the specific needs of the child according to his or her psychophysical characteristics, aptitudes and development; c) respect the right of children and adolescents to be heard and to participate in their own educational process, as well as in all matters related to their personal rights; d) provide guidance and direction to the child for the exercise and effectiveness of his or her rights; e) respect and facilitate the right of the child to maintain personal relationships with grandparents, other relatives or persons with whom he or she has an affective bond; f) represent and manage the child's estate. Article 647 prohibits corporal punishment in any form, mistreatment, and any act that physically or psychologically harms children or adolescents. Article 654 requires that each parent inform the other about the education, health, and other issues related to the child's person and assets.

El artículo 638 define la responsabilidad parental como el conjunto de deberes y derechos parentales relacionados con la persona y los bienes de los niños para la protección, el desarrollo y la educación de los niños mientras sean menores. Estas responsabilidades se rigen por tres principios establecidos en el artículo 639: a) el interés superior del niño; b) la progresiva autonomía del niño en función de sus características psicofísicas, aptitudes y desarrollo. Con mayor autonomía, disminuye la representación de los padres en el ejercicio de los derechos de los hijos; c) el derecho del niño a ser escuchado y a que se tenga en cuenta su opinión en función de su edad y grado de madurez. En caso de desacuerdo entre los padres, el artículo 642 permite que cualquiera de los padres busque alivio ante un juez competente. El juez debe resolver el desacuerdo a través del mecanismo más corto provisto por la ley local, después de escuchar a los padres en conjunto con un fiscal. Si los desacuerdos continúan o si se produce cualquier otro desacuerdo que obstaculice gravemente el ejercicio de la patria potestad, el juez podrá: (1) ceder la patria potestad total o parcialmente a uno de los padres, o (2) repartir sus deberes entre ellos, por un período no superior a dos años. El juez también podrá ordenar medidas de intervención interdisciplinaria y someter la disconformidad a mediación. El artículo 646 establece que los deberes de los padres son: a) cuidar y convivir con el niño, proporcionarle alimentación y educación; b) considerar las necesidades específicas del niño de acuerdo con sus características psicofísicas, aptitudes y desarrollo; c) respetar el derecho de los niños, niñas y adolescentes a ser escuchados y participar en su propio proceso educativo, así como en todo lo relacionado con sus derechos personales; d) brindar orientación y dirección al niño para el ejercicio y efectividad de sus derechos; e) respetar y facilitar el derecho del niño a mantener relaciones personales con los abuelos, otros familiares o personas con las que tenga un vínculo afectivo; f) representar y administrar la herencia del niño. El artículo 647 prohíbe el castigo corporal en cualquier forma, el maltrato y cualquier acto que lesione física o psicológicamente a los niños o adolescentes. El artículo 654 requiere que cada padre informe al otro sobre la educación, la salud y otros asuntos relacionados con la persona y los bienes del niño.

Ley de Educación 2006 (última revisión 2018) (2018)

Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general

The Law on Education established that one of the principles of Spain’s public education system is the prevention of gender-based violence (Article 1). Preference in the admission to public schools will be given to students who have had to move because they suffered acts of gender-based violence (Article 84.7).

La Ley de Educación estableció que uno de los principios del sistema de educación pública de España es la prevención de la violencia de género (Artículo 1). Se dará preferencia a la admisión a las escuelas públicas a los estudiantes que hayan tenido que mudarse porque sufrieron actos de violencia de género (Artículo 84.7).

Equality Act (2010)

Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, LGBTIQ, Sexual harassment

This Act is a comprehensive act that replaced several pieces of legislation, including the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975. In general, The Equality Act 2010 legally protects people from discrimination in the workplace and in wider society, and provides equality provisions, including the following:

the basic framework of protection against direct and indirect discrimination, harassment and victimization in services and public functions, work, education, associations and transport changing the definition of gender reassignment, by removing the requirement for medical supervision protection for people discriminated against because they are perceived to have, or are associated with someone who has, a protected characteristic clearer protection for breastfeeding mothers applying a uniform definition of indirect discrimination to all protected characteristics harmonizing provisions allowing voluntary positive action allowing claims for direct gender pay discrimination where there is no actual comparator making pay secrecy clauses unenforceable extending protection in private clubs to sex, religion or belief, pregnancy and maternity, and gender reassignment introducing new powers for employment tribunals to make recommendations that benefit the wider workforce


HIV Control of the Disease and Related Issues (Amending Title 33) (2010)

Abortion and reproductive health rights, Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Harmful traditional practices, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

The Act regulates sexually transmitted diseases including HIV, provides information for treatment of HIV, and provides punishment for violations. §18.3 of the Act provides that the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Youth and Sports shall provide education on the prevention and control of HIV. §18.4-18.5 provide that educating the public regarding HIV and AIDS is part of the national response, and the government shall train all relevant personnel. While §18.7 provides that all employees shall receive the HIV training regarding the prevention and control of HIV and AIDS. Several portions of the act speak to the rights of women and girls specifically. §18.9(a) of the Act notes that when providing HIV and AIDS service to women and girls differences in sex and gender should be considered. §18.9(b) directs the government agencies, when implementing the strategies, policies and programs to address the following issues: protection of the equality of women in private and public life, to address their rights to refuse sex and to access reproductive services independently, to address men’s equal responsibilities in sexual and reproductive health, to increase educational, economic, and employment opportunities to women, to reduce inequalities in laws regarding marital issues, and to protect women’s rights in religious contexts. §18.9(c) covers pregnant women with HIV and grants them the right to marry. The government shall provide them with consultation and information regarding future pregnancy decisions and the protection of future children from HIV. Section 18.9(d) requires the government to implement national education and training to health care providers to reduce HIV infection caused by sexual assault, protect the confidentiality of the HIV test result, report the sexual violence, and assist the investigation of such violence, and to develop and implement education and training for security personnel and prosecuting authorities in conducting investigations and prosecutions about the sexual violence. §18.27 provides that willful transmission of HIV by an infected person who knows his or her HIV test constitutes first degree felony. §18.28 prohibits discrimination on the basis of HIV status.

International Case Law

O’Keeffe v. Ireland European Court of Human Rights (2014)

International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

The applicant was repeatedly sexually abused by her school principal during the 1970s. When these events were reported to the police in 1996, the complete police investigation revealed that the principal had sexually abused 21 former students during a 10-year period. In total, the principal was charged with 386 criminal offences of sexual abuse. The applicant brought a civil action against the Minister for Education and the Attorney General of Ireland, claiming that the State had vicarious liability for the personal injury she suffered as a result of the abuse in the public school. The High Court ruled that the state did not have vicarious liability for its employee’s actions, and the Supreme Court dismissed the applicant's appeal. In January 2014, the applicant brought a case to the European Court of Human Rights ("ECtHR"), alleging violations of Article 3 (torture or inhuman or degrading treatment) of the European Convention on Human Rights, and Article 13, alleging that she did not have an effective domestic remedy. The ECtHR held the following: (1) the Irish State failed to meet its positive obligation, in violation of Article 3; (2) there was no violation of the procedural obligations under Article 3 since an effective official investigation into the ill-treatment of the applicant had been carried out in 1995 once the a complaint was made by another former pupil to the police; (3) the applicant did not have an adequate remedy available to her regarding her Article 3 complaints, in violation of Article 13; and (4) the applicant was awarded 85,000 euros for the costs and expenses of the proceedings. As a result of this case, Irish Prime Minister Enda Kenny gave an apology to the applicant, and, in August 2014, the Irish government submitted an Action Plan to the Council of Europe setting out the measures that have been taken since this ECtHR decision.

Domestic Case Law

Frau A gg. Herrn B (Ms. A v. Mr. B) [GBK I/408/12] Gleichbehandlungskommission (Equal Treatment Commission) (2014)

Gender-based violence in general, Sexual harassment

In this case, the applicant brought an action against the instructor in a vocational course for making, among other things, sexually crude comments to or in the presence of the applicant and incessantly harassing her. Austria’s Equal Treatment Commission (the “Commission”) concluded that this amounted to sexual harassment in violation of Section 6 para. 1 no. 4 of the Federal Equal Treatment Act (Bundesgleichbehandlungsgesetz). This opinion is notable for the Commission’s recognition that the woman’s age is important to the determination of the extent of the harassment because harassed persons deal differently with such treatment and take different lengths of time to process sexual harassment. The Commission considered the practical links between hierarchy, power, and sexual harassment, noting that while the occurrence of sexual harassment is always an unacceptable intrusion into the human dignity of the harassed persons, young people are particularly vulnerable.

Dieser Fall wurde vor die Gleichbehandlungskommission gebracht, nachdem die Antragstellerin bei einer beruflichen Weiterbildung von einem Ausbilder unter anderem sexuell anrüchige Kommentare über sie oder in ihrem Beisein dulden musste und dieser Frau A unentwegt belästigte. Die Österreichische Gleichbehandlungskommission („die Kommission“) gelangte zu der Auffassung, dass dieses Verhalten eine sexuelle Belästigung im Sinne von § 6 Abs. 1 Ziff. 4 des Österreichischen Bundesgleichbehandlungsgesetzes darstellte. Die Feststellung der Kommission ist beachtlich, da sie betont, inwiefern das Alter der Frau bei der Entscheidung, ob eine solche Belästigung vorliegt, eine Rolle spielt. Jede Person nimmt eine solche Behandlung unterschiedlich wahr, geht mit ihr verschieden um und insbesondere dauert es unterschiedlich lang, um damit psychisch umzugehen. In der Feststellung hat die Kommission auch auf die in der Praxis bestehenden Verknüpfungen zwischen Hierarchie, Macht und sexueller Belästigung erwogen. Hierbei hat sie dargelegt, dass eine sexuelle Belästigung zwar immer ein inakzeptables Eindringen in die menschliche Würde darstellt, junge Menschen aber umso verletzlicher sind.

Somprasad Paneru and Others v. Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers and Others Supreme Court of Nepal (2006)

Trafficking in persons

Citing reports that a traditional custom called Kamlari sends over 10,000 children between the ages of 7 and 8 into servitude for wealthy households or small businesses, a petition called for new controls on this practice which is against both Nepalese constitutional law and the Convention on Rights of the Child, 1989 (CRC). The Court ordered the Government of Nepal to frame laws to abolish Kamlari and ensure protection of affected children. In addition, the Court called on the government to develop comprehensive legislation addressing the underlying issues that perpetuate such harmful practices, such as education and employment, especially amongst girls and women. By rooting out the base causes for harmful traditional practices, the Supreme Court of Nepal showed a crucial willingness to identify and address the societal problems driving harmful practices, providing hope for real change in women’s and human rights.

Pun Devi Maharjan v GoN, Office of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers and Others Supreme Court of Nepal (2008)

Gender discrimination

A petition claimed that the traditional practice of electing young girls as Kumaris, or “goddesses”, who are expected to follow certain social restrictions and appear at religious festivals violated the rights of the child. After ordering a study the Court found that this practice did not prevent the Kumari from getting an education or qualify as child labor. Rather, the Court found Kumaris to be an important cultural and religious institution and ordered compensation for former Kumaris who had not been socially reintegrated and ordered a study to find recommendations for preserving the rights, interests, and social security of current and ex-Kumaris. This case shows an astute consideration of the balance between cultural preservation and child’s rights in a country with deep cultural and religious traditions. Additionally, it sets the important precedent of considering the practical well-being and rights of the child before implementing human rights reforms.