Women and Justice: Topics: Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

Article 56 of the Labor Code stipulates the employer's obligation to set part-time working hours for certain categories of employees, including (i) pregnant women; (ii) women with children under the age of 14 and/or a child with a disability; (iii) women caring for a sick family member. The scope of their labor rights is not limited; such women still have the right to a full-time vacation and social benefits. For part-time work days, a person is paid in proportion to the time worked. Article 60-1 provides for the right of pregnant women and women with children to choose to work from home. At the same time, a woman can work from home only if: (i) it is possible, taking into account the nature of the work they performed and (ii) employer has the appropriate resources and means to do so.

Стаття 56 Кодексу законів про працю України передбачає обов’язок роботодавця встановлювати неповний робочий час для окремих категорій працівників, у тому числі (I) для вагітних жінок; (II) жінок, які мають дітей віком до 14 років та/або дитину з інвалідністю; (III) жінок, які доглядають за хворим членом сім'ї. Обсяг їх трудових прав не обмежений; такі жінки зберігають право на повну відпустку та соціальні виплати. За неповний робочий день робота особа оплачується пропорційно відпрацьованому часу. Стаття 601 передбачає право вагітних жінок і жінок, які мають дітей, вибирати роботу вдома. Водночас жінка може працювати вдома, лише якщо: (I) це можливо з урахуванням характеру виконуваної роботи та (II) роботодавець має для цього відповідні ресурси та засоби.

The Law 'On Civil Service,' among the other main principles of civil service, defines equal access to civil service, namely the prohibition of all forms of discrimination, unjustified restrictions, and granting unjustified advantages to certain categories of citizens when entering and completing civil service. It is interesting that the enforcement of this rule is carried out through some measures, which are taken by the National Agency of Ukraine for Civil Service. For example, in 2021, amendments were made to the General Rules of Ethical Conduct of Civil Servants and Local Self-Government Officials, including regulations regarding combating discrimination, ending sexual harassment, and ensuring gender equality among civil servants and local self-government officials. In addition, the National Agency of Ukraine for Civil Service issues, within the scope of its powers, provides advanced training of employees of state authorities, enterprises, institutions and organizations, and local self-government bodies to ensure equal rights and opportunities for women and men. Also, the Law prohibits sending pregnant women, civil servants who have children under 14 years of age, or women who independently raise children with disabilities on business trips without their consent. It is forbidden to involve pregnant women and women with children under the age of three in overtime work, as well as work on weekends, holidays and work at night. Women who have children aged 3 - 14 years or a child with a disability may engage in overtime work only with their consent.

Закон "Про державну службу" серед основних принципів державної служби визначає рівний доступ до державної служби, а саме заборону будь-яких форм дискримінації, необґрунтованих обмежень, надання необґрунтованих переваг окремим категоріям громадян під час вступу та проходження державної служби. Цікаво, що виконання цієї норми здійснюється за допомогою заходів, які вживає Національне агентство України з питань державної служби. Наприклад, у 2021 році внесено зміни до Загальних правил етичної поведінки державних службовців та посадових осіб місцевого самоврядування, зокрема норми щодо протидії дискримінації, припинення сексуальних домагань та забезпечення ґендерної рівності серед державних службовців та посадових осіб органів місцевого самоврядування. Крім цього, Національне агентство України з питань державної служби в межах своїх повноважень забезпечує підвищення кваліфікації працівників органів державної влади, підприємств, установ і організацій, органів місцевого самоврядування щодо забезпечення рівних прав і можливостей жінок і чоловіків. Також Законом заборонено направляти у відрядження вагітних жінок, державних службовців, які мають дітей віком до 14 років, а також жінок, які самостійно виховують дітей-інвалідів, без їх згоди. Забороняється залучати до надурочних робіт вагітних жінок і жінок, які мають дітей віком до трьох років, а також до робіт у вихідні, святкові дні та у нічний час. Жінки, які мають дітей віком від 3 до 14 років або дитину-інваліда, можуть залучатися до надурочних робіт лише за їх згодою.

The National action plan for the implementation of UN Security Council resolution 1325 'Women, peace, security' for the period until 2025 was developed, in accordance with the Law of Ukraine 'On Ensuring Equal Rights and Opportunities of Women and Men', as well as Ukraine's international obligations in the field of human rights. This document aims to address: women's participation in decision-making; combating gender-based violence and sexual violence related to armed conflict, etc. As a problem that needs to be solved in Ukraine, this document defines women's vulnerability to the negative consequences of armed conflict. In particular, according to official statistics, the majority of internally displaced persons, unemployed internally displaced persons, etc., are women. In addition, the analyzed document contains the results of the study on violence 'Women's Well-being and Security' conducted by the OSCE in 2019, according to which 67% of Ukrainian women (who have suffered from violence), they have been subjected to physical, psychological, or sexual violence by the time they are 15 years old. The Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine is the executive body responsible for the implementation of the National action plan. This document includes the following strategic goals: ensuring the protection of women from sexual and gender-based violence (during armed conflict and peacetime); ensuring the process of post-conflict recovery; development and implementation of the transitional justice system based on the principles of ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women and men, etc. In addition, the National Plan includes the obligation of the Ministry of Social Policy to publish an annual report on its implementation for public discussion on its official website. But, at the same time, the website of this body contains the latest report for 2020 only.

Національний план дій розроблено відповідно до Закону України "Про забезпечення рівних прав та можливостей жінок і чоловіків", а також міжнародних зобов’язань України у сфері прав людини. Цей документ спрямований на забезпечення: участі жінок у прийнятті рішень; боротьби із ґендерно зумовленим насильством та сексуальним насильством, пов’язаним зі збройним конфліктом тощо. Як проблему, що потребує вирішення в Україні, цей документ визначає вразливість жінок до негативних наслідків збройного конфлікту. Зокрема, згідно з офіційною статистикою, більшість внутрішньо переміщених осіб, безробітних внутрішньо переміщених осіб тощо становлять жінки. Крім цього, аналізований документ містить результати дослідження з питань насильства "Жіноче благополуччя та безпека", проведеного ОБСЄ у 2019 році, згідно з яким 67% українських жінок (які постраждали від насильства) зазнавали фізичного, психологічного чи сексуального насильства у віці до 15 років. Органом виконавчої влади, відповідальним за реалізацію Національного плану дій, є Міністерство соціальної політики України. Цей документ містить такі стратегічні цілі: забезпечення захисту жінок від сексуального та ґендерно зумовленого насильства (під час збройного конфлікту та мирний час); забезпечення процесу постконфліктного відновлення; розвиток та впровадження системи правосуддя перехідного періоду, що заснована на принципах забезпечення рівних прав і можливостей жінок і чоловіків, тощо. Крім того, Національний план містить обов’язок Міністерства соціальної політики публікувати щорічний звіт про його виконання для громадськості. обговорення на офіційному сайті. Але, при цьому, на сайті цього органу розміщено останній звіт лише за 2020 рік.

The purpose of the Concept is to improve society's understanding of the essence and tasks of state gender policy and to perceive it as an integral component of a democratic and legal state. The text of the Concept highlights the problems that need to be solved. For example, the gender discrimination, gender-based violence, and sexual harassment in Ukrainian society. Gender stereotypes are often ignored and dismissed, which is a negative trend. In addition, an extremely dangerous factor is the large amount of sexist and discriminatory content in the informational space, including sexist advertising. Women are underrepresented in the upper echelons of the labor sectors, public life, and politics. These, as well as a number of other global problems in the field of ensuring equal rights of women and men, led to the adoption of this Concept. The realization of this strategic program document is planned until 2025. For this, an action plan was developed and presented for discussion with the public, which contains successive steps for the implementation of the Concept and contains 8 strategic goals, in particular, ensuring the participation of women in the decision-making process and political activity; ensuring equal access of women and men to justice; elimination of gender-based violence, etc. It is planned that the achievement of these goals should be carried out mainly through public awareness (media appearances, discussions), educational activities, research on gender issues, communication companies, etc. The Concept should help intolerance of all forms of discrimination, overcoming established stereotypes regarding gender roles, as well as embedding standards of equal rights of women and men in society.

Метою Концепції є вдосконалення розуміння суспільством сутності та завдань державної ґендерної політики та сприйняття її як невід’ємної складової демократичної та правової держави. У тексті Концепції висвітлено проблеми, які потребують вирішення. Наприклад, ґендерна дискримінація, ґендерне насильство та сексуальні домагання в українському суспільстві. Ґендерні стереотипи часто ігноруються та відкидаються, що є негативною тенденцією. Крім цього, надзвичайно небезпечним фактором є велика кількість сексистського та дискримінаційного контенту в інформаційному просторі, в тому числі сексистської реклами. Жінки недостатньо представлені на керівних посадах, у громадському житті та політиці. Ці, а також низка інших глобальних проблем у сфері забезпечення рівності прав жінок і чоловіків зумовили прийняття цієї Концепції. Реалізація цього стратегічного програмного документу розрахована до 2025 року. Для цього розроблено та представлено на обговорення громадськості план заходів, який містить послідовні кроки щодо реалізації Концепції та містить 8 стратегічних цілей, зокрема забезпечення участі жінок у процесі прийняття рішень та політичній діяльності; забезпечення рівного доступу жінок і чоловіків до правосуддя; викорінення ґендерного насильства тощо. Передбачається, що досягнення цих цілей має здійснюватися переважно через інформування громадськості (виступи в ЗМІ, дискусії), просвітницьку діяльність, дослідження ґендерних питань, комунікаційні компанії тощо. Концепція має сприяти нетерпимості до будь-яких форм дискримінації, подолання усталених стереотипів щодо ґендерних ролей, а також утвердження стандартів рівних прав жінок і чоловіків у суспільстві.

The Act requires the Minister for Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth to make regulations requiring employers to publish information relating to the pay of their employees to show whether there are differences on account gender and the size of such differences (if they exist). Employers must publish the difference between both the mean and the median hourly pay of male and female employees, the difference between both the mean and the median bonus pay of male and female employees, the difference between both the mean and the median hourly pay of part-time male and female employees, and the percentage of male and female employees who received bonuses and benefits in kind. In addition, employers will be required to publish the reasons for any existing differences and the measures (if any) taken or proposed to be taken by the employer to eliminate or reduce such differences. The regulations will only apply to employers with 250 or more employees in the first two years after their introduction. In the third year, the requirements will also apply to employers with 150 or more employees. Thereafter, the requirements will apply to employers with 50 or more employees. The regulations will not apply to employers with fewer than 50 employees.

The 2015 Act provides for free health services for women who worked in Magdalen laundries (institutions ostensibly intended to house and employ ‘fallen’ women). Its Schedule provides for the 'Relevant Institutions' for the purposes of identifying women entitled to the provision of services. The 2015 Act was updated in 2019 (available here) to expand the group of women eligible for benefits under the Act.

The Civil Registration Act 2019 made technical amendments to the Civil Registration Act of 2004, the purposes of which were to facilitate legislation to provide for registration of the birth of donor-conceived children, and to enable both partners in a same-sex female relationship to have their details recorded in such registrations. Specifically, Section 10 provides for the recording of a ‘parent’s’ details and any parent may so register although the options of ‘mother’ and ‘father’ are still available.

The Act provides for recognition of changes of gender, issuance of gender recognition certificates, and conforming amendments to other legislation, including the Adoption Act 2010. Any person of at least 18 years of age who is not married or in a civil partnership, inter alia (Section 9), may apply to the Minister for Social Protection for a gender recognition certificate (Section 8). Where a gender recognition certificate is issued to a person, that person’s gender shall from the date of that issue become for all purposes the ‘preferred’ gender and sex (Section 18). The fact that a gender recognition certificate is issued to a person shall not affect the status of the person as the father or mother of a child born prior to the certificate’s date of the issue (Section 19), or the disposal or devolution of property under a will (including a codicil), or other instrument executed before the date the Act came into operation (Section 20). The Act also provides for “gender specific [criminal] offenses” in relation to the treatment of people with gender recognition certificates. Notably, where a relevant gender-specific sexual offence could be committed or attempted only if the gender of the person with a gender recognition certificate were not the ‘preferred’ gender, that fact does not prevent the sexual offence being committed or attempted (Section 23). Finally, a person who has a gender recognition certificate may apply to the Minister for Social Protection to revoke the certificate (Section 15).

The 38th Amendment of the Irish Constitution (available here) (i) repealed a previous requirement under Article 41(3) for a period of separation before dissolution of a marriage and (ii) added that the law must provide for the recognition of a dissolution of a marriage granted under the civil law of another state.

Article 11 requires that the state guarantee equality between women and men in all civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. The state must work to adopt measures ensuring the proportional representation of women in the houses of parliament, as determined by the constitution. In addition, the state must ensure women’s rights in pursuing public employment, employment in the senior management of the state, and appointment in judicial agencies without discrimination. The state is committed to the protection of women against all forms of violence and guarantees the empowerment of women in reconciling familial duties and professional obligations. Article 53 mandates that all citizens enjoy equality under the law, equally in their rights, freedoms, and general obligations, without discrimination on the basis of religion, faith, sex, origin, race, color, language, disability, economic status, political affiliation, geography, or otherwise. Such discrimination, as well as the incitement of hate, constitutes a crime punishable under the law. The state is committed to adopting the necessary measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination, and the law establishes a special independent commission to this end. English translation available at: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf.

The Criminal and Criminal Procedural Codes of Ukraine were amended in December 2017 to adopt provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention). In part, these amendments increased the punishment for an illegal abortion (meaning that it was conducted by a person who had no special medical education; or forcing an abortion without voluntary consent, which is punishable by a fine of 50-100 tax-free minimum incomes, community service of 100-240 hours, correctional labor for up to two years, or restriction of liberty for up to two years, or imprisonment for the same term. The amendments criminalized forcing an abortion and forced sterilization without consent. Rape (i.e., sexual acts involving vaginal, anal, or oral penetration using the genitals or any other item, without voluntary consent) is punishable with imprisonment for three to five years and sexual violence (nonconsensual, non-penetrative sexual assault) is punishable by imprisonment for up to five years. Finally, consent is valid if it is a person's exercise of free will, with consideration of attending circumstances.

У грудні 2017 року до Кримінального та Кримінально-процесуального кодексів України були внесені зміни, що містять положення Конвенції Ради Європи «Про запобігання насильству щодо жінок і домашньому насильству та боротьбу з ними» (Стамбульська конвенція), ухваленої у 2011 році. Внаслідок цих змін статтю 134 Кримінального кодексу України, яка передбачає кримінальну відповідальність за незаконне проведення аборту (проведення аборту особою, яка не має спеціальної медичної освіти; примус до проведення аборту без добровільної згоди потерпілої), було змінено, в частині посилення відповідальності за це небезпечне злочинне діяння (тобто тепер незаконний аборт карається штрафом від 50 до 100 неоподатковуваних мінімумів доходів громадян або громадськими роботами на строк від 100 до 240 годин, або виправними роботами за на строк до двох років, або обмеженням волі на строк до двох років, або позбавленням волі на той самий строк). Також криміналізовано примус до аборту без добровільної згоди потерпілої, а також примусову стерилізацію без добровільної згоди потерпілої особи. Змінено статті, які передбачають кримінальну відповідальність за зґвалтування та сексуальне насильство. Зокрема, зґвалтування (тобто вчинення статевих дій, пов’язаних із вагінальним, анальним або оральним проникненням в тіло іншої особи за допомогою статевих органів або будь-якого іншого предмета без добровільної згоди потерпілої особи) карається позбавленням волі на строк від трьох до п’яти років, а також сексуальне насильство (не пов'язане з проникненням в тіло іншої особи без добровільної згоди потерпілої особи) карається позбавленням волі на строк до п'яти років. Примітка: Згода вважається добровільною, якщо вона є результатом вільного волевиявлення особи, з урахуванням супутніх обставин.

The Criminal Code of Ukraine Article 300 prohibits the importation, manufacture or distribution of works that promulgate violence and cruelty, racial, national or religious intolerance and discrimination. Importation into Ukraine for sale or distribution purposes, or manufacture, storage, transportation or other movement for the same purposes, or sale or distribution of works (and also compelling others to participate in the creation of such works) that promulgate discrimination, among other things, are criminalized by Article 300. These dangerous culpable acts shall be punishable by a fine of 1,000-4,000 tax-free minimum incomes, or arrest for a term of up to six months, or restriction of liberty for a term of up to three years. Committing the same actions with regard to motion pictures and video films that promulgate discrimination, and also selling works that promulgate discrimination, to minors or distribution of such works among minors are as aggravating circumstances.

Ввезення в Україну творів, що пропагують, серед іншого, дискримінацію, з метою збуту чи розповсюдження або їх виготовлення, зберігання, перевезення чи інше переміщення з тією самою метою або їх збут чи розповсюдження (а також примушування до участі в їх створенні) криміналізовано статтею 300. Ці небезпечні винні дії караються штрафом від 1000 до 4000 неоподатковуваних мінімумів доходів громадян або арештом на строк до шести місяців, або обмеженням волі на строк до трьох років. Ті самі дії щодо кіно- та відеопродукції, що пропагують дискримінацію, а також збут такої продукції неповнолітнім чи розповсюдження серед них творів, що пропагують дискримінацію є кваліфікуючою ознакою цього злочину, що обтяжує покарання.

This law serves as Paraguay’s Labor Code, which contains provisions that prohibit any gender-based discrimination in the workplace and guarantee the equal treatment between men and women, such as Articles 47 and 128. In turn, article 130 prohibits employers to assign risky labors to pregnant women. Articles 133 and 134 provide rights for lactating women, including requiring maternity leave and lactating rooms within the company.

Esta ley contiene el Código Laboral de Paraguay, el cual fija disposiciones que prohíben cualquier discriminación basada en el género en el lugar de trabajo y garantizan la igualdad de trato entre hombres y mujeres, como los artículos 47 y 128. A su vez, el artículo 130 prohíbe a los empleadores asignar labores riesgosas a mujeres embarazadas. Los artículos 133 y 134 prevén derechos para las mujeres lactantes, incluido el requisito de licencia por maternidad y salas de lactancia dentro de la empresa.

This law seeks to promote and guarantee women’s right to live free from violence. Its purpose is to promote prevention and protection strategies, sanctions, and integral reparation measures for any kind of violence exercised against women. This law fosters public policies to prevent and remediate different forms of violence, such as psychological, sexual, and physical violence. It also assigns broad responsibilities to each Ministry and Governmental Agency to support the fight against discrimination. The law provides both for protection measures for women that are victims of abuse, such as specific agencies to channel the claims; and penalties for abusers, for instance from 10 to 30 years of imprisonment for femicide. In turn, Decree 6973 specifies that interpretation and application of Law 5777 of 2016 shall provide the broadest protection for women subject to violence. Subsequently, no legal provision may deny, undermine, or limit the rights guaranteed therein. The Decree sets specific courses of action authorities must undertake to prevent violence against women and particular procedures to accomplish that goal. Romantic, platonic, and other sorts of intra-family relationships are considered domestic. For these purposes, marriage is not a requirement.

Esta ley busca promover y garantizar el derecho de las mujeres a gozar de una vida libre de violencia. Su finalidad es promover estrategias de prevención y protección, sanción y medidas de reparación integral frente a cualquier tipo de violencia contra las mujeres. Esta ley fomenta políticas públicas para prevenir y remediar diferentes formas de violencia, como la violencia psicológica, sexual y física. También asigna amplias responsabilidades a cada Ministerio y agencia gubernamental para apoyar la lucha contra la discriminación. La ley prevé tanto medidas de protección para las mujeres que son víctimas de maltrato, como organismos específicos para canalizar las denuncias y penas para los abusadores, por ejemplo, de 10 a 30 años de prisión por feminicidio. A su vez, el Decreto 6973 especifica que la interpretación y aplicación de la Ley 5777 de 2016 brindará la más amplia protección a las mujeres víctimas de violencia. En consecuencia, ninguna disposición legal podrá negar, menoscabar o limitar los derechos en ella garantizados. El Decreto establece cursos de acción específicos que las autoridades deben emprender para prevenir la violencia contra las mujeres y procedimientos particulares para lograr ese objetivo. Las relaciones intrafamiliares, románticas y similares se consideran domésticas. A estos efectos, el matrimonio no es un requisito.

This law modified articles 236, 239, 57, and 58 of the Labor Code, among other provisions to establish special labor protections for pregnant and lactating women. The law prohibits the dismissal of pregnant or lactating women without cause and without prior permission of a labor inspector. It also granted women the right to receive their regular salary during a 14-week maternity leave.

Esta ley modificó los artículos 236, 239, 57 y 58 del Código Sustantivo del Trabajo, entre otras disposiciones. Su intención es establecer protecciones laborales reforzadas para las mujeres embarazadas y lactantes. En esta medida, la ley establece la prohibición de despedir a una mujer embarazada o lactante sin causa y sin permiso previo de un inspector de trabajo. También otorgó a las mujeres el derecho a recibir su salario regular durante una licencia de maternidad de 14 semanas.

This law promoted the creation and establishment of a gender affairs observatory (‘Observatorio de Asuntos de Género’). The purpose of the observatory is to identify and select a system of gender indicators, to analyze gender data, and to monitor public and private plans and programs to suggest improvements on policies and regulations aiming for gender equity in Colombia.

Esta ley promovió la creación y establecimiento de un observatorio de asuntos de género (“Observatorio de Asuntos de Género”). El objetivo del observatorio es identificar y establecer un sistema de indicadores de género, analizar datos de género y monitorear planes y programas públicos y privados para sugerir mejoras en las políticas y regulaciones que apuntan a la equidad de género en Colombia.

The purpose of this law is to improve the quality of life of rural women, prioritizing low-income and economically vulnerable women. It promotes and fosters equality between rural men and women, while containing provisions regarding social security, education, and training. As such, the law sets forth i) the right of rural women to participate in financing funds for the development of rural sectors, ii) subsidies in money or kind, iii) programs for adequate education for rural women and iii) their equitable participation in different decision-making, planning, and monitoring bodies at the territorial level.

El objeto de esta ley es mejorar la calidad de vida de las mujeres campesinas, priorizando a las mujeres de escasos recursos y económicamente vulnerables. Promueve y fomenta la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres rurales, al tiempo que contiene disposiciones en materia de seguridad social, educación y capacitación. Así, la ley establece i) el derecho de las mujeres rurales a participar en fondos de financiamiento para el desarrollo de los sectores rurales, ii) subsidios en dinero o en especie, iii) programas para una adecuada educación de las mujeres rurales y iii) su participación equitativa en diferentes órganos de decisión, planificación y seguimiento a nivel territorial.

The Colombian Constitution of 1991 promotes values and principles that protect and defend the role of women in society. Article 13 prohibits discrimination based on sex, race, national or family origin, religion, language, and political or religious opinion. Article 40 stipulates that authorities must guarantee the adequate and effective participation of women at all decision levels in the Public Administration. Article 42 covers equal rights and duties in domestic and family relationships, providing that any form of violence in the family is considered a severe offense to its integrity and unity and will thus be sanctioned. The Constitution aims to achieve gender equality for Colombian women. Colombia also ratified, by virtue of the Decree Law 251 of 1981, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) of 1979.

La Constitución colombiana de 1991 promueve valores y principios que protegen y defienden el papel de la mujer en la sociedad. El artículo 13 prohíbe la discriminación por motivos de sexo, raza, origen nacional o familiar, religión, idioma y opinión política o religiosa. El artículo 40 establece que las autoridades deben garantizar la participación adecuada y efectiva de las mujeres en todos los niveles de decisión de la Administración Pública. El artículo 42 contempla la igualdad de derechos y deberes en las relaciones domésticas y familiares, disponiéndose que toda forma de violencia intrafamiliar se considera una falta grave a la integridad y unidad y, por tanto, será sancionada. La Constitución tiene como uno de sus objetivos lograr la igualdad de género para las mujeres colombianas. Colombia también ratificó, en virtud del Decreto Ley 251 de 1981, la Convención sobre la Eliminación de Todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer (CEDAW) de 1979.

In 2015, the Lithuanian Military Code of Ethics was amended to include the obligation to “respect and protect the dignity and fundamental rights and freedoms of every human being, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, social status, religion, belief, opinion, age, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, religion.” The original version did not expressly include protection against discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation.

Lietuvos karo etikos kodeksas buvo pakeistas 2015 m. įtraukiant pareigą „gerbti ir ginti kiekvieno žmogaus orumą bei pagrindines teises ir laisves, neatsižvelgiant į jo lytį, rasę, tautybę, kalbą, kilmę, socialinę padėtį, tikėjimą, įsitikinimus ar pažiūras, amžių, lytinę orientaciją, negalią, etninę priklausomybę, religiją“. Pirminėje versijoje nebuvo aiškiai numatyta apsauga nuo diskriminacijos dėl lyties ar seksualinės orientacijos.

The Equal Treatment Act defined and expanded protection against any discrimination and harassment to include, in addition to gender, “race, nationality, citizenship, language, origin, social status, belief, convictions or views, age, sexual orientation, disability, ethnic origin or religion.” It also established a duty of state and municipal institutions, educational institutions, and employers to actively prevent discrimination on the previously mentioned grounds. Under Article 13, a person who has suffered such discrimination has the right to claim material and non-material damages. English translation available here.

Šis įstatymas apibrėžė ir išplėtė apsaugą nuo bet kokios diskriminacijos ir priekabiavimo dėl lyties iki „amžiaus, lytinės orientacijos, negalios, rasės ar etninės priklausomybės, religijos ar įsitikinimų”. Taip pat nustatyta valstybės ir savivaldybių institucijų, švietimo įstaigų ir darbdavių pareiga aktyviai užkirsti kelią diskriminacijai dėl anksčiau minėtų priežasčių. Pagal straipsnį 13, asmuo, patyręs tokią diskriminaciją, turi teisę reikalauti turtinės ir neturtinės žalos atlyginimo.

The Constitution is an essential pillar of gender equality legislation in Lithuania. Article 29 affirms that human rights may not be restricted, or any privileges granted, on the grounds of “gender, race, nationality, language, origin, social status, belief, convictions, or views.” Further, Article 38 declares that marriage can only be concluded upon free mutual consent between a man and a woman, and that the rights of spouses are equal. The provisions do not declare same-sex marriages or partnerships valid. Article 39 states that working mothers are entitled to paid leave before and after childbirth, and favorable working conditions. English translation available here.

Konstitucija yra esminis lyčių lygybės teisės aktų ramstis Lietuvoje. Straipsnyje 29 teigiama, kad žmogaus teisės negali būti ribojamos ar suteikiamos privilegijos dėl „lyties, rasės, tautybės, kalbos, kilmės, socialinės padėties, tikėjimo, įsitikinimų ar pažiūrų“. Be to, straipsnyje 38 nustatyta, kad santuoka gali būti sudaroma tik gavus laisvą vyro ir moters tarpusavio sutikimą ir kad sutuoktinių teisės yra lygios. Šios nuostatos nedeklaruoja tos pačios lyties asmenų santuokų ar partnerysčių galiojančiomis. Straipsnyje 39 nustatyta, kad dirbančios motinos turi teisę į mokamas atostogas prieš gimdymą ir po jo bei palankias darbo sąlygas.

The Federal Equality Act aims at creating equality throughout various service agreements (see Section 1) the Federal Government might have with individuals. The main body no. 1 (1. Hauptstück) focuses on the equal treatment of men and women (Section 3). Section 7(2) states that job advertisements should be written in such a way that they equally refer to both men and women and do not contain details that could lead to the conclusion that the advertisement is only for one gender. Sections 8 and 8a define sexual and gender-based harassment and emphasize that they constitute gender discrimination. Section 11 requires the promotion of equal opportunities for women. Section 11b states that, where women are underrepresented (meaning less than 50% of employees), employers must prioritize women applicants if they are equally well suited for the position as the best-suited male applicant until the percentage of employed women reaches at least 50%. Section 11c applies the same rule to job promotions. Section 11d provides that employers must prioritize female employees in participation in training and coaching measures to prepare them to assume higher-ranking and more senior positions.

Das Bundes-Gleichbehandlungsgesetz zielt darauf ab, für alle Dienstverhältnisse, die die Bundesregierung mit Einzelpersonen hat, Gleichheit zu schaffen. Das 1. Hauptstück des Gesetzes fokussiert sich auf die Gleichbehandlung von Mann und Frau (§ 3). § 7 Abs. 2 verlangt, dass Stellenausschreibungen in einer Art und Weise verfasst werden müssen, dass sie sich gleichermaßen an Männer und Frauen wenden und keine Details enthalten, die den Leser zu dem Schluss kommen lassen könnten, dass die Ausschreibung sich nur an ein Geschlecht richtet. § 8 und § 8a betonen, dass eine Diskriminierung auch in einem Fall vorliegt, in dem ein Arbeitnehmer (sexuell) belästigt wird. § 11 enthält ein Frauenförderungsgebot. In diesem Sinne gelten Frauen als unterrepräsentiert, wenn weniger als 50% der Angestellten Frauen sind. Nach § 11b müssen Frauen in unterrepräsentierten Bereichen bei der Bewerberauswahl bevorzugt behandelt werden, wenn sie für die Stelle gleichgeeignet sind wie der bestqualifizierte männliche Bewerber. Dies gilt, bis der Anteil der Frauen in diesem Bereich mindestens 50% beträgt. § 11c wendet diese Regel auch auf Beförderungen an. Nach § 11d sind weibliche Angestellte zur Teilnahme an Aus- und Weiterbildungsmaßnahmen, die zur Übernahme höherwertiger Verwendungen qualifizieren, vorrangig zuzulassen.

The legislation shall support planning, execution, and controlling of personnel allocation on the Federal level. Personnel controlling shall ensure, inter alia, gender equality (Article 1 para. 1 no. 2). Therefore, Article 5 provides that federal service authorities shall submit to the chancellor biennially a report detailing the target quota of women holding the highest remuneration levels (para. 2). If the targeted percentage ratios are not met, the relevant federal service authority shall submit to the chancellor an additional report explaining the reasons for such non-compliance by the end of the first quarter of the following year (para. 4).

Dieses Gesetz soll die Planung, Ausführung und der Kontrolle von Personenallokation auf Bundesebene unterstützen. Personalkapazitätskontrolle soll u.a. Geschlechtergleichheit sicherstellen (Art. 1 Abs. 1 Ziff. 2). Hierfür haben die haushaltsleitenden Organe gemäß Artikel 5 dem Bundeskanzler alle zwei Jahre einen Bericht vorzulegen, der detailliert auf die Zielquoten von Frauen in der höchsten Vergütungsklasse eingeht (Abs. 2). Für den Fall, dass die angestrebten Zielanteile nicht erreicht werden, müssen die Organe dem Kanzler bis zum Ende des ersten Quartals des Folgejahres einen Zusatzbericht vorlegen, der die Gründe für das Nichterreichen der Quote angibt (Abs. 4).

In recognition of the inherent dignity and worth of each human, Article 12 requires that the State and all persons recognize and protect human rights and afford the fullest protection to the rights and views of all individuals, groups, and minorities. All persons have equal status before the law. Limitations of rights are only justifiable insofar as they ensure peaceful human interaction in the context of an open and democratic society. Article 13 requires the State to actively promote the welfare and development of the people by affirmatively adopting legislation and policies to achieve gender equality. This requires: (i) women’s full participation in all spheres of society with opportunities equal to men; (ii) the implementation of nondiscrimination principles and other measures; and (iii) the implementation of policies addressing domestic violence, personal security, maternity benefits, economic exploitation, and rights to property, among other relevant social issues. Article 22 mandates that all members of a family shall enjoy equal respect and shall be protected under law against all forms of neglect, cruelty or exploitation. No person shall be forced to enter into any marriage, and no person over the age of 18 can be prevented from entering into marriage. All provisions of this section apply to civil, customary, and other forms of marriage. Article 24 specifically guarantees that women are entitled to full and equal protection of law, and have the right not to be discriminated against on the basis of gender or marital status. This includes the following rights: (i) equal rights under civil law, including equal capacity in the realms of contracts, property, custody, decision-making regarding children, and acquisition and retaining of citizenship and nationality; and (ii) upon the dissolution of marriage, entitlement to fair disposition of jointly held property and to fair maintenance. Further, any laws that discriminate against women are invalid and legislation must affirmatively be passed to eliminate customs and practices that discriminate against women. This affirmative requirement particularly applies to practices of: sexual abuse, harassment, or violence; discrimination in work, business, or public affairs; and deprivation of property (inherited or otherwise). Article 30 provides that, while all persons have a right to the enjoyment of economic, social, cultural and political development, women in particular shall be given special consideration in regards to this right. The State must take all necessary measures for the realization of this right, including reforms aimed to eradicate social injustice and inequality. Other gender-related provisions include: the prohibition of torture, inhumane, and degrading treatment or punishment (Article 19); Article 20’s ban on all forms of discrimination; the right to education for all people (Article 25); Article 27’s prohibition of slavery, servitude, and forced labor; and Article 31’s requirement that all persons are entitled to fair wages and equal remuneration for equal value work without discrimination of any kind, especially on the basis of gender.

The National Plan of Action for the Implementation of the Resolution Nº 1325/2000 of the UN Security Council on Women, Peace and Security was approved by the Angolan President in June 2017, revoking all legislation that contravenes it. The UN Resolution Nº 1325/2000 emphasizes the uneven impact of armed conflicts on men and women, and appeals for a higher degree of participation of women, and the integration of gender equality in the prevention, management, and resolution of armed conflicts. As such, it highlights the importance of gender equality in all phases of construction of peace and gives women the role not as victims, but as important actors in the peacemaking process. The National Plan follows those principles by planning to: 1) increase women’s participation in the construction of peace and related decision-making, 2) guarantee the formation and habilitation of women and girls, 3) promote and protect women’s and girls’ human rights in zones of conflict and post-conflict through empowerment and elimination of gender and sexual violence, among other objectives. In this respect, the plan also includes a series of activities, goals and execution times, and the expected result as an effective policy to implement the plan's objectives.

O Plano Nacional de Ação para a Implementação da Resolução Nº 1325/2000 do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas sobre Mulheres, Paz e Segurança foi aprovado pelo Presidente da Angola em Junho de 2017, revogando toda a legislação que viola o plano. A Resolução Nº 1325/2000 da ONU enfatiza o impacto desigual dos conflitos armados para homens e mulheres, e apela para um maior grau de participação das mulheres, e para a integração da igualdade de gênero na prevenção, administração e resolução dos conflitos armados. Como tal, ele realça a importância da igualdade de gênero em todas as fases de construção da paz e dá às mulheres papeis não de vítimas, mas de importantes atrizes no processo de pacificação. O Plano Nacional segue esses princípios ao planejar: 1) o aumento da participação feminina na construção da paz e relacionada a tomadas de decisão, 2) a garantia da formação e habilitação de mulheres e garotas, 3) a promoção e proteção dos direitos humanos de mulheres e garotas em zonas de conflito e pós-conflito por meio do empoderamento e eliminação de violência sexual e de gênero, junto de outros objetivos. Nesse sentido, o plano também inclui uma série de atividades, metas e tempos de execução, e o resultado esperado como uma política efetiva para implementar os objetivos do plano.

Under Art. 75, both parents exercise parental authority equally, meaning that all issues regarding the forms and methods of upbringing, education, religion, organization of free time among other child-rearing matters, require mutual agreement. Disagreements between parents on raising children are resolved in the courts.

Art. 199 prohibits the unjustified refusal to hire or the unlawful firing of a person, including a woman for reasons related to her pregnancy. This crime is punishable by a prohibition to occupy certain offices or be engaged in certain activities, correctional labor, or imprisonment for a term of up to three years.

The National Plan of Action for the Implementation of the Resolution Nº 1325/2000 of the UN Security Council on Women, Peace and Security was approved by the Angolan President in June 2017, revoking all legislation that contravenes it. The UN Resolution Nº 1325/2000 emphasizes the uneven impact of armed conflicts for men and women, and appeals for a higher degree of participation of women, and to the integration of gender equality in the prevention, management, and resolution of armed conflicts. As such, it highlights the importance of gender equality in all phases of construction of peace and gives women the role not as victims, but as important actors in the peacemaking process. The National Plan follows those principles by planning to: 1) increase women’s participation in the construction of peace and related decision-making, 2) guarantee the formation and habilitation of women and girls, 3) promote and protect women’s and girls’ human rights in zones of conflict and post-conflict through empowerment and elimination of gender and sexual violence, among other objectives. In this respect, the plan also includes a series of activities, goals and execution times, and the expected result as an effective policy to implement the plan's objectives.

O Plano Nacional de Ação para a Implementação da Resolução Nº 1325/2000 do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas sobre Mulheres, Paz e Segurança foi aprovado pelo Presidente da Angola em Junho de 2017, revogando toda a legislação que viola o plano. A Resolução Nº 1325/2000 da ONU enfatiza o impacto desigual dos conflitos armados para homens e mulheres, e apela para um maior grau de participação das mulheres, e para a integração da igualdade de gênero na prevenção, administração e resolução dos conflitos armados. Como tal, ele realça a importância da igualdade de gênero em todas as fases de construção da paz e dá às mulheres papeis não de vítimas, mas de importantes atrizes no processo de pacificação. O Plano Nacional segue esses princípios ao planejar: 1) o aumento da participação feminina na construção da paz e relacionada a tomadas de decisão, 2) a garantia da formação e habilitação de mulheres e garotas, 3) a promoção e proteção dos direitos humanos de mulheres e garotas em zonas de conflito e pós-conflito por meio do empoderamento e eliminação de violência sexual e de gênero, junto de outros objetivos. Nesse sentido, o plano também inclui uma série de atividades, metas e tempos de execução, e o resultado esperado como uma política efetiva para implementar os objetivos do plano.

The Portuguese Constitution in Article 9 provides that it is the duty of the State to promote equality among men and women. Article 13 provides that no one shall be privileged or discriminated against for birth, gender, race, language, place of origin, religion, political or ideological conditions, social or economic status, or sexual orientation. Article 67 states that, in order to protect the family, the state is particularly charged with respect for individual freedom, guaranteeing the right to family planning by promoting the information and access to the methods and means required therefore, and organizing the legal and technical arrangements that make it possible to exercise motherhood and fatherhood with awareness. Article 68 determines that women have the right to special protection during pregnancy and following childbirth, and working women also have the right to an adequate period of leave from work without loss of remuneration or any privileges. Article 109 establishes that the direct and active participation in political life by men and women is a condition for and a fundamental instrument in the consolidation of the democratic system, and the law must promote both equality in the exercise of civic and political rights and the absence of gender-based discrimination in access to political office.

A Constituição portuguesa, em seu artigo 9º, estabelece que é dever do Estado promover a igualdade entre homens a mulheres. O artigo 13 prevê que ninguém deverá ser privilegiado ou discriminado em razão da ascendência, sexo, raça, língua, território de origem, religião, convicções políticas ou ideológicas, instrução, situação económica, condição social ou orientação sexual. O artigo 67 estabelece que, para proteção da família, o Estado deverá garantir, no respeito da liberdade individual, o direito ao planeamento familiar, promovendo a informação e o acesso aos métodos e aos meios que o assegurem, e organizar as estruturas jurídicas e técnicas que permitam o exercício de uma maternidade e paternidade conscientes. O artigo 67 da Constituição dispõe sobre o direito à proteção especial da mulher durante a gravidez e após o parto, tendo as mulheres trabalhadoras ainda direito a dispensa do trabalho por período adequado, sem perda da retribuição ou de quaisquer regalias. Por fim, o artigo 109 estabelece que a participação direta e ativa de homens e mulheres na vida política constitui condição e instrumento fundamental de consolidação do sistema democrático, devendo a lei promover a igualdade no exercício dos direitos cívicos e políticos e a não discriminação em função do sexo no acesso a cargos políticos.

The Brazilian Constitution provides for equal rights to all individuals, regardless of sex, gender and/or sexual preference. However, specific discriminatory conducts are dealt with in the Criminal Code (Federal Decree No. 2.848/1940) and other Federal Laws. English translation available here.

A Constituição brasileira dispõe, expressamente, que todos são iguais perante a lei, sem distinção de qualquer natureza (Artigo 5º), seja em razão do sexo, gênero, ou preferência sexual. Contudo, ainda remanescem condutas discriminatórias específicas, seja no Código Penal, seja em outras leis federais.

This Act was enacted to enforce the J.Y. Interpretation 748 and made same-sex marriage legal in Taiwan by legislation. The Act provides that two persons of the same sex may form a permanent union of intimate and exclusive nature for the purpose of living a common life. Same-sex marriages are bound by requirements and limitations relating to minimum age and consent, consanguinity and bigamy as well as provisions relating to cohabitation, sharing of living expenses, marital property, inheritance rights, grounds for termination, and other matters relating to marriage and its general effects. English translation available here.

Parliament enacted this law pursuant to the Supreme Court decision Shayara Bano v. Union of India. Section 3 of the Act bans and voids talaq-e-biddat declarations , while Section 4 stipulates imprisonment of up to three years along with fine for a Muslim man who pronounces talaq. Section 7 of the Act also declares the offence of pronouncing Talaq as a cognizable, non-bailable, and non-compoundable offence. The Act provides additional protections to Muslim women upon whom talaq is pronounced in Sections 5 and 6, including a subsistence allowance from their husband and custody of their children (as determined by the magistrate) respectively.

The Criminal Code defines rape and the persecution of a person based on his or her sex as a crime against humanity (Article 172). It also includes rape or forcible prostitution under threat to a person’s life or limb and/or the threat to the life or the limb of a loved one as a crime of war (Article 180). English translation available from ILO and LegislatiOnline through External URL.

This law provides a framework for implementation of equal rights and opportunities to all persons in Bosnia and defines a system of protection from discrimination. It defines responsibilities and obligations of legislative, judicial, and executive authorities in Bosnia, as well as legal persons and individuals with public authorities to ensure the protection, promotion, and creation of conditions for equal treatment. The law further mandates the protection of women from discrimination, including the prohibition of sexual harassment, which is defined as every form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal, or physical behavior of a sexual nature that aims to or has the effect of harming dignity of a person, especially when it creates a fearful, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or offensive environment. English translation available here.

This law sets out the measures for protecting women’s rights, promoting gender equality, development of women (including physical, mental, educational, and professional and skills developments), eliminating gender-based discriminations, and preventing crimes, such as human trafficking and domestic violence, against women. Article 17, Equal Rights in the Family, mandates that women and men have equal rights in all matters concerning family relationships, including equal rights in matrimonial property and inheritance. Part IV, The Protection of Women and Children against Trafficking and Domestic Violence, sets out measures to assist and protect women and children victims of trafficking and domestic violence; duties and obligations of governments and officers, social organizations, individuals, doctors, social workers, or other organizations that discover or receive information concerning a victim; and criminal procedures relating to offenders. Unofficial English translation available from the ILO here.

Section 301 states that any woman, causing herself an abortion or allowing another person to procure an abortion for herself, shall be liable to imprisonment up to a term of three years or a fine not exceeding 60,000 Baht. Section 302 punishes those who procure an abortion for a woman with her consent; the penalty is imprisonment for a term not exceeding 10 years or a fine up to 20,000 Baht, with the term and amount varying according to if grievous bodily harm or death resulted from the abortion. Section 303 punishes those who procure an abortion for a woman without her consent; the penalty is imprisonment for a term not exceeding 20 years or a fine up to 40,000 Baht, with the term and amount varying according to if grievous bodily harm or death resulted from the abortion. Section 305 exempts those under Sections 301 or 302 from the offense if the abortion was carried out be a medical practitioner on medical grounds or the woman is younger than 15 years and the pregnancy resulted from rape or fetuses with fatal abnormalities. Thailand’s Constitutional Court ruled on 19 February 2020 that existing laws on abortion (Sections 301 and 305) conflict with Thailand’s 2017 Constitution as they fail to hold men responsible for illegal abortions. It remains unclear how the provisions will be amended; the ruling gives the government 360 days for the amendments and does not immediately change the law. English translation available from the ILO through External Link.

The “Equality Act” broadly prohibits almost all forms of gender discrimination. It establishes two groups, the Committee for the Promotion of Gender Equality (the “PGE Committee”) and the Committee on the Determination of the Unfair Gender Discrimination (the “UGD Committee”). The PGE Committee’s powers and duties broadly include prescribing and recommending policy on promoting gender quality, prescribing guidelines for providing assistance and remedy to victims of gender inequality, overseeing the performance of duties under the Equality Act, and promoting study and research into the prevention of gender discrimination. The UGD Committee’s powers and duties include considering problems submitted by petition claiming unfair gender discrimination, prescribing provisional measures before rendering decisions for protection or mitigation, and issuing orders to perform duties or provide compensation. Any person or organization found guilty of an offense shall be ordered to cease and prevent recurrence of unfair gender discrimination. Whoever fails to comply with such an order shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to a fine not exceeding 20,000 Baht. Under section 17(2) of the Equality Act gender discrimination is permitted on the basis of religious principles or national security. English translation available through External Link.

This Act amends the Commission on Gender Equality Act of 1996 to align with the Constitution. The Preamble in the Act substitutes the Preamble of the 1996 Act, and holds that §181 and item 20(2) of Schedule 6 to the Constitution provides for the continued existence of the Commission for Gender Equality ("the Commission"). Furthermore, it outlines the purpose of the Commission, which is to promote respect for gender equality and the protection, development, and attainment of gender equality. Among the Commission’s powers outlined in the Act is its power to monitor, investigate, research, educate, lobby, advise, and report on issues concerning gender equality. All its powers and functions are to be prescribed by national legislation.

Article 1 of the 2008 Constitution provides for the equal treatment of all people in the Netherlands. It further prohibits discrimination based on “religion, belief, political opinion, race or sex or on any other grounds whatsoever.” Article 11 of the 2008 Constitution holds that “Everyone shall have the right to inviolability of his person, without prejudice to restrictions laid down by or pursuant to Act of Parliament.” (English translation available through External Link.)

Article 402 prohibits the interpretation or application of any norm in a manner that limits, restricts, excludes, or suppresses the equality of rights and obligations of the parties to a marriage, whether such marriage is consummated between two people of different sexes or the same sex.

El artículo 402 prohíbe la interpretación o aplicación de cualquier norma de manera que limite, restrinja, excluya o suprima la igualdad de derechos y obligaciones de las partes contrayentes, ya sea que dicho matrimonio se consuma entre dos personas de diferente sexo o del mismo sexo.

The Code sets various provisions related to marital property and duties. It also sets the minimum age for marriage at 18.

El Codigo establece varias leyes relacionadas a la propiedad y deberes matrimoniales. Tambien designa 18 como la edad minima para el matrimonio legal.

The main objective of this law is to establish a judicial mechanism that allows for an effective reestablishment of the rule of law whenever an act of arbitrary discrimination is committed. Pursuant to this law, arbitrary discrimination means any distinction, exclusion, or restriction that lacks reasonable justification, made by agents of the State or individuals, and that causes deprivation, disturbance or threat in the legitimate exercise of the fundamental rights established in the Political Constitution of the Republic or in the international treaties on human rights ratified by Chile and that are in force, in particular when based on race or ethnicity, nationality, socio-economic situation, language, ideology or political opinion, religion or belief, unionization or participation in trade union organizations or the lack thereof, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status, age, affiliation, personal appearance, and illness or disability.

The Intestate Succession Act governs family inheritance when a property owner dies without a will. The law provides a uniform system of intestate succession applicable regardless of the type of marriage (i.e., secular, customary, or Muslim). The estate is distributed through the various sections according to the number and type of heirs involved in the distribution. Section 5, for example, sets guidelines for how to divide an estate survived by both spouse and child, while section 6 dictates how to divide an estate when survived by a spouse only.

Section 14(1) makes it a discriminatory practice to harass an individual in the context of provisions of goods, services, facilities or accommodation, provision of commercial or residential accommodation, or in matters of employment. Subsection (2) clarifies that sexual harassment is deemed to be harassment on a prohibited ground of discrimination.

§38 of the Act establishes a Ministry of Gender and Development in the executive branch of the government and sets forth the goal of the Ministry to improve gender equality and increase women’s equal participation in economy, society, politics, and culture. (§ 38.3). The Act provides the structure and organization of the Ministry, the procedure to appoint the Ministers and other staff members, and requires the government to provide an adequate budget for the Ministry. (§§ 38.4-38.10).

Article 11 guarantees fundamental rights and freedoms to all persons regardless of sex, ethnicity, race, political opinion, or national origin. Article 18 prohibits employment discrimination based on sex. Article 23 provides that the property obtained by a person during marriage because of his or her own labor shall not be used to satisfy the obligations of his or her spouse, nor shall the property be controlled by a spouse. It states further that the legislature is compelled enact laws to provide equal protection to the surviving spouses and children in both statutory and customary marriages.

The Equal Opportunity Act aims to eliminate discrimination, sexual harassment, and victimisation to the greatest extent possible and to promote equality as far as reasonably practicable. It defines and prohibits discrimination in relation to various “attributes,” including sex, sexual orientation, marital status, and pregnancy. The prohibitions apply in a range of situations, including employment-related discrimination. Sexual harassment and victimisation are also defined and prohibited. The Act also regulates the operation of the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (“VEOHRC”), its powers, and the process by which people may bring disputes concerning violations of the Act to the Commission. After investigating a dispute, the VEOHRC may refer a matter to the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal, which may order a person to refrain from further violating the Act or pay compensation to the applicant for loss, damage or injury suffered.

The Special Comprehensive Law for a Violence-Free Life for Women (Ley Especial Integral para una Vida Libre de Violencia) (“LEIV”) establishes a framework for prosecuting and preventing acts of violence against women, and for providing assistance and support for victims of gender-based violence. The law establishes 11 new crimes that aim to sanction various aspects of gender-based violence in various forms: physical (femicide, aggravated femicide, obstruction of justice, induced or assisted suicide); psychological (inducement and promotion of sex acts through electronic media; unlawful dissemination of information, dissemination of pornography); economic (breach of duty of economic assistance, theft of birthright, theft of profits of economic activity); and speech (violent speech against women). Rape is prosecuted through the Penal Code. The Salvadorean Institute for the Advancement of Women (Instituto Salvadoreno para el Desarollo de la Mujer) (“ISDEMU”) is tasked with overseeing the implementation of the law and with establishing women’s shelters and other programs designed to help victims of domestic and gender-based violence.

La Ley Especial Integral para una Vida Libre de Violencia para las Mujeres (LEIV) establece una avenida para enjuiciar y prevenir actos de violencia contra las mujeres, y para brindar asistencia y apoyo a víctimas que hayan sufrido violencia por razón de género. La ley establece 11 nuevos delitos que tienen como objetivo sancionar varios aspectos de la violencia de género en diversas formas: física (femicidio, femicidio agravado, obstrucción de la justicia, suicidio inducido o asistido); psicológica (inducción y promoción de actos sexuales a través de medios electrónicos; difusión ilegal de información, difusión de pornografía); económica (incumplimiento del deber de asistencia económica, robo de derechos de nacimiento, robo de beneficios de la actividad económica); y discurso (discurso violento contra la mujer). La violación es procesada por el Código Penal, el cual es el código penal criminal. El Instituto Salvadoreño para el Adelanto de la Mujer ("ISDEMU") tiene la tarea de supervisar la implementación de la ley y establecer refugios para mujeres asi como otros programas diseñados para ayudar a las víctimas de violencia doméstica y de violencia en base de género.

The Law on Education established that one of the principles of Spain’s public education system is the prevention of gender-based violence (Article 1). Preference in the admission to public schools will be given to students who have had to move because they suffered acts of gender-based violence (Article 84.7).

La Ley de Educación estableció que uno de los principios del sistema de educación pública de España es la prevención de la violencia de género (Artículo 1). Se dará preferencia a la admisión a las escuelas públicas a los estudiantes que hayan tenido que mudarse porque sufrieron actos de violencia de género (Artículo 84.7).

In Spain, two last names are generally used to identify an individual, typically with the father’s last name first and the mother’s last name second. Under Article 109 of the Civil Code, since 2000, parents can choose the order of their children’s last names. However, a recent amendment to the Civil Registry Law, which entered into force in 2017, established that if the parents have not decided what last name to use first, the person in charge of the Civil Registry will ask them to do so and, if they do not do so within three days, the Civil Registry representative will decide the order of the names based on the child’s best interest. This change in policy removes any legal preference for using the father’s last name first (Article 49 Civil Registry Law).

En España, generalmente se usan dos apellidos para identificar a un individuo, generalmente con el apellido del padre primero y el apellido de la madre segundo. Según el Artículo 109 del Código Civil, desde 2000, los padres pueden elegir el orden de los apellidos de sus hijos. Sin embargo, una enmienda reciente a la Ley de Registro Civil, que entró en vigencia en el 2017, estableció que si los padres no han decidido qué apellido usar primero, la persona a cargo del Registro Civil les pedirá que lo hagan y, si no lo hacen dentro de los tres días, el representante del Registro Civil decidirá el orden de los nombres en función del interés superior del niño. Este cambio en la política elimina cualquier preferencia legal por usar primero el apellido del padre (Artículo 49 de la Ley de Registro Civil).

This is a broad piece of legislation that regulates the prevention, education, social assistance, social security benefits, procedural, criminal, and medical aspects of gender-based violence. The Sexual Violence Law also created specific courts within the judiciary system, like the Courts of Violence Against Women, to hear all cases related to gender-based violence.

Esta es una amplia legislación que regula la prevención, educación, asistencia social, beneficios de seguridad social, aspectos procesales, penales y médicos de la violencia de género. La Ley de Violencia de Género también creó tribunales específicos dentro del sistema judicial, como los Tribunales de Violencia contra la Mujer, para escuchar todos los casos relacionados con la violencia de género.

Spain’s Constitution contains three provisions particularly relevant to gender justice. Article 14 of the Constitution states that “Spaniards are equal before the law and may not in any way be discriminated against on account of birth, race, sex, religion, opinion, or any other personal or social condition or circumstance.” Article 32.1 establishes that “[m]en and women have the right to marry with full legal equality.” Finally, Article 35.1 states that [a]ll Spaniards have the duty and the right to work, to the free choice of profession or trade, to professional advancement through work, and to a sufficient remuneration for the satisfaction of their needs and those of their families. Under no circumstances may they be discriminated on account of their sex.” (Official English translation available here: http://www.congreso.es/portal/page/portal/Congreso/Congreso/Hist_Normas/Norm/const_espa_texto_ingles_0.pdf)

La Constitución de España contiene tres disposiciones particularmente relevantes para la justicia de género. El Artículo 14 de la Constitución establece que “los españoles son iguales ante la ley y de ninguna manera pueden ser discriminados por motivos de nacimiento, raza, sexo, religión, opinión o cualquier otra condición o circunstancia personal o social.” El Artículo 32.1 establece que “los hombres y las mujeres tienen derecho a casarse con plena igualdad legal.” Finalmente, el artículo 35.1 establece que “[todos] los españoles tienen el deber y el derecho al trabajo, a la libre elección de profesión u oficio, a la promoción profesional a través del trabajo y a una remuneración suficiente para la satisfacción de sus necesidades y las de sus familias. Bajo ninguna circunstancia puede ningún español ser discriminados por su sexo.”

The constitution provides equality for all regardless of any identity. (Constitution of Sweden, Chapter 1 Articles 2 and 9).

Law No. 05/L-020 on Gender Equality promotes gender equality, by defining the relevant concepts, setting forth various measures to protect equal rights of genders, and specifying the institutions responsible for gender equality. The Law defines “woman” and “man” as including any person who considers oneself as such, and describes gender identity – which does not require medical intervention – as a “protected characteristic.” Direct and indirect gender discrimination are prohibited under the Law, including less favorable treatment of women for reasons of pregnancy, maternity, or sexual orientation, and gender-based violence. Harassment and sexual harassment are also forbidden, and whether a person refuses or surrenders to such behavior shall not be used as a basis for a decision affecting that person in a legal proceeding. The Law directs the Kosovo institutions to implement various general measures to achieve gender equality in Kosovo, including gender mainstreaming in all policies and legislation, gender budgeting in all areas, and ensuring recruitment and appointment are consistent with the requirement for equal representation of women and men. In areas where inequities exist, public institutions are further instructed by the Law to take temporary special measures to accelerate the realization of gender equality, including quotas, preferential treatment, hiring, and promotion. The Law in particular requires legislative, executive, and judicial bodies at all levels to adopt special measures until equal gender representation is achieved. The Law establishes an Agency for Gender Equality to support the implementation of the Law, and further mandates that all ministries and municipalities must appoint gender equality officials, and allocate sufficient resources from their budget, to implement the Law. Discrimination on bases including sex, pregnancy, or birth, is prohibited in employment matters including access to employment or training, and working conditions. In regard to education, the Law proscribes sex discrimination in access to education and scholarships, evaluation results, and attainment of degrees, and mandates the inclusion of gender equality education in school curricula at all levels. Persons who believe the principle of equal treatment has not been implemented in relation to them may initiate proceeding in accordance with the Law on Protection from Discrimination. Violations of the Law are punishable by fines of up to 700 Euros for individuals, and 900 Euros for legal entities. (Unoffocial English version available here.)

This Act is a comprehensive act that replaced several pieces of legislation, including the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975. In general, The Equality Act 2010 legally protects people from discrimination in the workplace and in wider society, and provides equality provisions, including the following:

The Labour Code enshrines equality in the workplace into Albanian legislation and provides specific protection to women’s rights. Article 9 (Prohibition against Discrimination) expressly prohibits any discrimination in the fields of labour and education (including but not limited to discrimination based on sex, race and nationality). Article 32 (Protection of Personality) specifically prohibits any acts of sexual harassment against an employee by an employer or other employees. Sexual harassment is defined to include any act that “considerably harms the psychological state of the employee because of sex.” Article 54 (Working Conditions) provides a requirement for pregnant women to have breaks every three hours. Article 105/a (Woman's Employment Protection) provides that women cannot be dismissed solely based on the reason of pregnancy or child delivery. Article 115 (Equality between Sexes in terms of Reward) makes mandatory equal pay between men and women for carrying out jobs of equal value. (External link to the International Labour Organization website for Albanian labor-related legislation, including the ILO's unofficial English translation available here.)

The Employment Ordinance regulates the general conditions of employment and related work matters. Part III of the Ordinance provides for maternity protection, including provisions for maternity leave.

The Sex Discrimination Ordinance (“SDO”) prohibits discrimination on the grounds of sex, pregnancy, and marital status. Both direct and indirect discrimination are prohibited. Direct discrimination occurs where a party treats a person “less favorably” than another person in similar circumstances, except for the attribute of sex/pregnancy/marital status. Courts use a “but for test,” asking whether the complainant would not have received the less favorable treatment but for his/her sex/pregnancy/marital status. Indirect discrimination occurs where a seemingly uniform condition is applied, but the burden disproportionately falls on a group defined by sex/pregnancy/marital status.

The Anti-Discrimination Act 1998 makes it unlawful to directly or indirectly discriminate on the basis of certain grounds (“attributes”) in connection to public life; including employment, education and training, and provision of facilities, goods and services. The various unlawful grounds of discrimination include: sexual orientation, lawful sexual activity, gender, gender identity, intersex variations of sex characteristics, martial status, relationship status, pregnancy, breastfeeding, parental status, family responsibilities, irrelevant medical record, association with a person who has, or is believed to have, any of these attributes. Additionally, the Act prohibits inciting hatred towards a person on the grounds of their race, disability, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, or gender identity, as well as harassment, sexual harassment, and victimization towards a person based on protected attributes or their intent to file a claim under this Act. It also prohibits a person from promoting discrimination through a sign, notice, or advertisement. The Act also establishes the Anti-Discrimination Commissioner to investigate and resolve complaints. Complaints can be initiated by the person targeted by the discrimination, a trade union, or another representative for the targeted person. The Commission can also investigate any discrimination ex officio. If the Commissioner believes that the complaint cannot be resolved by conciliation or that the nature of the complaint is such that it should be referred to the Tribunal, the Commissioner can refer the complaint to the Anti-Discrimination Tribunal. If the Tribunal finds that a complaint is substantiated, it may, among other remedies, order the respondent to pay the complainant an amount the Tribunal thinks appropriate as compensation for any loss or injury suffered by the complainant and caused by the respondent's discrimination or prohibited conduct.

The Gender Equity Education Act (the “GEEA”) aims to encourage respect for gender diversity, eliminate gender discrimination and promote substantive gender equality through education. The GEEA charges the competent authorities (as well as schools) with establishing gender equity education committees whose tasks include drafting regulations and policies, coordinating resources, supervising gender equity-related activities and promoting research and development of curricula, teaching and assessments. Under the GEEA, schools must provide a safe, gender-fair learning environment by respecting, giving due consideration to, and not discriminating against prospective students, students, faculty, and staff of different genders. Schools shall strive towards this objective by taking steps such as integrating gender equity education into their curriculum, providing gender equity education when training new staff members, reporting known incidents of sexual assault, sexual harassment or sexual bullying within 24 hours and promptly handling and investigating such cases. Schools and any principal, faculty or staff member found to be in violation of the GEEA may be subject to a fine. Persons may also be dismissed or discharged from employment.

性別平等教育法（即「GEEA」）旨在鼓勵尊重性別多樣性，消除性別歧視，並透過教育促進實質性別平等。性別平等教育法責成主管機關（以及學校）建立性別平等教育委員會，其任務包括擬定法規和政策，協調資源，監督與性別平等有關的活動，並促進課程、教學和評估的研究及發展。根據性別平等教育法，學校必須透過尊重、適當考慮及不歧視不同性別的潛在學生、學生、教職員工等方式，提供一個安全、性別平等的學習環境。學校應努力實現這一目標，採取的措施包括：將性別平等教育納入課程、在培訓新員工時提供性別平等教育、在24小時之內報告已知的性侵、性騷擾或性霸凌事件，並及時處理和調查此類案件。任何被發現違反性別平等教育法的學校、校長、教職員工可能會被處以罰鍰。該等人員也可能被開除或解聘。

Under Section 55(1), women are prevented from working at night in any industrial or agricultural position. However, under 55(2) female nurses in either sector are allowed to work at night, as are women working in management positions not “ordinarily engaged in manual labour.” Women who work at night because of unforeseeable and nonrecurring work interruptions or who work with materials that require night work because of rapid deterioration are provided with a possible defense to the law. Under Section 56, no woman may be employed in any work that requires time in any underground mine unless they hold positions of management and do not perform manual labor, are employed in health and welfare services, or are working as part of their courses of study. Under Section 57, the Minister, at any time, may prohibit or restrict women from employment in any particular industry or in any process or work carried out. Violations under any of sections 55-56 of the Act carry with them a fine, imprisonment for a term not to exceed one month, or both.

The Matrimonial Causes Act governs marriages, dissolution of marriage, and custody of children. According to Section 5(d) a marriage is voidable if at the time of marriage “the wife is pregnant by a person other than the husband.” However, by Section 35(c), only the husband can nullify the marriage because of pregnancy; the wife has no right to petition to do so. Under Section 47, both husband and wife have grounds for a decree of restitution of conjugal rights, if either refuse to cohabitate with and render conjugal rights to the other. With respect to the wife, if the husband has paid any money to her with respect to a decree under Section 47 and she refuses to comply with the decree within a reasonable time, the money paid becomes a debt due and payable by the wife to the husband and recoverable by action in court.

The National Commission for Women Act established the National Commission for Women to promote the general welfare of Nigerian women, “promote the full utilization of women in the development of human resources and bring about their acceptance as full participants in every phase of national development, with equal rights and corresponding obligations,” and “work towards total elimination of all social and cultural practices tending to discriminate against and de-humanise womanhood.” Some of the Commission’s objectives include “mobilizing women collectively in order to improve their general lot and ability to seek and achieve leadership roles in all spheres of society” and “raising consciousness about the rights of women, the availability of opportunities and facilities, their social, political, and economic responsibilities.”

Sections 15(2) and 42(1) prohibit sex-based discrimination. Section 17 of the Constitution outlines the elimination of demographically derived disparities as a fundamental objective of state policy. Section 17(3)(e), focuses on gender-based disparity and states that the state shall direct its policy towards ensuring that “there is equal pay for equal work without discrimination on account of sex, or on any other ground whatsoever.” Section 26 of the Constitution, which relates to citizenship, specifically provides for extension of a Nigerian man’s citizenship to his foreign-born wife while making no reference to a similar path to citizenship for the foreign-born husband of a woman who is a Nigerian citizen. Section 26(2) provides that the president may confer Nigerian citizenship on “any woman who is or who has been married to a citizen of Nigeria.” By implication, this section limits the right of a Nigerian woman to transmit her nationality to a foreign husband.

The National Assembly Election (Amendment) Act, 2011 repeals and replaces the National Assembly Elections Act of 1992. Section 47(2)(b) states that political parties shall “arrange the candidates in order of preference from top to bottom, with a female or male candidate immediately followed by a candidate of the opposite sex; and (c) include equal numbers of “women and men.”

The Education Act of 2010 makes primary education free and compulsory for male and female children. Part 2(4)(2)(C) states that “The Minister, Principal Secretary, Teaching Service Commission, proprietors of schools, teachers and school boards shall promote the education of the people of Lesotho” and “ensure that the learner is free from any form of discrimination in accessing education.” While Part 9, Section 41 of the act establishes that at least two of the five members of the proposed Teaching Service Commission must be women.

The Local Government (Amendment) Act of 2004 amends the Local Government Act of 1997. It maintains Lesotho’s quota system and mandates that 30% of the total number of seats in municipal, urban, and community councils be reserved for women. It deletes instances of the words “he,” “his,” and “him” throughout the prior act and replaces them with "he or she," "his or her," and "him or her"; reiterates in Section 3 that “not less than one third of the seats in a council shall be reserved for women”; and section 4(3) calls for the creation of a Tender Board, which must have a third of its members be women.

Article 21 of the Constitution of Republic of Uganda prohibits gender discrimination generally and enshrines the principle of equality before the law, regardless of sex, race, color, ethnicity, tribe, religion, political belief, or social or economic standing. Article 31 sets the minimum age for marriage at 18 and provides for equal rights between men and women during marriage and divorce. Article 33 pertains specifically to the rights of women and requires that (1) the government must provide opportunities to enhance the welfare of women and enable them to reach their full potential, (2) women have rights equal to men in areas including political, economic, and social activities, and (3) laws, customs, traditions, and cultures that are "against the dignity of women" are prohibited by the Constitution. Article 22 enshrines protection for the right to life and allows for abortion in accordance with the law.

The Customary Law Act aims to reconcile potential conflicts arising between customary Botswana law and Botswana’s common law. The Act pursues this aim by specifying that customary law is to be applied in customary courts only when it “is not incompatible with the provisions of any written law or contrary to morality, humanity or natural justice.” The Act thus makes presumptively invalid customary law that does not comply with common law legislation, leaves such law inapplicable in customary courts, and upholds the supremacy of the common law in Botswana.

In 1998, the Penal Code Act was amended to make the offence of rape gender-neutral and to move away from a phallus-specific definition. The Amendment introduced a minimum sentence of 10 years to a maximum term of life imprisonment and made bail unavailable to persons accused of the offense. The amendment also made mandatory HIV testing for persons convicted of rape, and in the case wherein rape was accompanied by violence or the rapist was unaware of his or her HIV+ status, a minimum sentence of 15 years with corporal punishment was introduced. For cases wherein the convicted person was aware of his or her HIV status, the minimum sentence was set at 20 years imprisonment with corporal punishment. Excerpts of amended language available here.

On April 2, 2009, by Presidential decree, the President of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela created the Ministry of Popular Power for Women. The reasons announced by the President for the creation of such Ministry were (i) to reduce discrimination against women, (ii) to promote the welfare and social security of the women in Venezuela, (iii) to eradicate discrimination against women, and (iv) to equal women and men in all aspects of social life.

The law governs rights associated with labor. The law grants women the right to a 60-day paid maternity leave. In contrast, fathers receive a one-day paternity leave on the day immediately following the birth of the child. The law also provides that mothers have the right to up to 30 absences from work per year in order to care for minor children who are either sick or have suffered an accident.

Article 36 of Mozambique’s Constitution provides that “men and women are equal before the law in all aspects of political, economic, social and cultural life.” Article 120 recognizes and protects the roles of maternity and paternity. It acknowledges the importance of family to the development of children - socially, morally, and ethically - and so ensures an education to the future generation based on the country’s values, namely equality between men and women. Article 122 states a woman’s rights to participate in society. It specifically supports women’s participation in the struggle for national liberation and defense of sovereignty and democracy, as well as promotes women in their growing role in all spheres: political, economic, social, and cultural.

O Artigo 36 da Constituição de Moçambique prevê que “homens e mulheres são iguais perante a lei em todos os aspectos políticos, econômicos, sociais, e culturais." O artigo 120 reconhece e protege os papéis de maternidade e paternidade. Ele reconhece a importância da família para o desenvolvimento da criança – social, moral, e eticamente – e então garante uma educação para a próxima geração baseada nos valores do país, nomeadamente a igualdade entre homens e mulheres. O artigo 122 estabelece os direitos da mulher em participar da sociedade. Ele especificamente apoia a participação feminina no esforço pela liberação nacional e a defesa da soberania e democracia, assim como promove a mulher no seu papel crescente em todas as esferas: política, econômica, social, e cultural.

This law amends Article 1,520 of the Civil Code in order to establish that only persons who have reached the age of marriage determined in article 1,517 of the Civil Code may marry. Article 1,517 of the Civil Code provides that a man and woman who have not reached the age of majority may marry at age 16 if they have received authorization from both of their parents or their legal representatives. (Article 5 of the Civil Code provided that minority ceases at the age of 18, when the person is entitled to practice all acts of civil life.) Before this amendment, Article 1,520 of the Civil Code established that those who had not yet reached the age of marriage according to Article 1,517 would be allowed to marry to avoid the imposition or enforcement of criminal penalties or in the case of pregnancy. This is no longer permitted as a reason to marry younger than the age of 16.

Referida Lei Federal alterou o artigo 1520 do Código Civil para estabelecer que apenas pessoas que atingiram a idade núbil poderiam contrair casamento. Nesse aspecto, o artigo 1517 do Código Civil estabelece que o homem e a mulher com dezesseis anos podem casar-se, exigindo-se autorização de ambos os pais, ou de seus representantes legais, enquanto não atingida a maioridade civil, que é de 18 anos, nos termos do artigo 5º. Antes dessa alteração, o artigo 1520 estabelecia que aqueles que ainda não tinham atingido a idade núbil poderiam se casar, para evitar imposição ou cumprimento de pena criminal ou em caso de gravidez.

The Constitution of Grenada (1973) is the supreme law. It guards the human rights of all persons within the country, including the right to life and security of the person. Gender-based violence threatens women’s rights to life and security of the person. Specifically, Chapter 1 of the Constitution, entitled “Protection of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms,” defines discriminatory treatment and provides for fundamental rights and freedoms for all, regardless of sex, race, place of origin, political beliefs, color, or creed, subject only to the rights and freedoms of others, and the public interest.

La Constitución de Granada (1973) es la ley suprema. Protege los derechos humanos de todas las personas dentro del país, incluyendo el derecho a la vida y la seguridad de la persona. La violencia de género amenaza los derechos de la mujer, a la vida, y la seguridad de la persona. Específicamente, el Capítulo 1 de la Constitución, titulado "Protección de los derechos y libertades fundamentales", define el trato discriminatorio y establece los derechos y libertades fundamentales para todos, independientemente del sexo, raza, lugar de origen, creencias políticas, color o credo, sujeto sólo a los derechos y libertades de los demás y al interés público.

The 2011 Amendments to the Jamaican Constitution specifically enumerated a “right to freedom from discrimination on the ground of . . . being male or female.” The amendments also guaranteed a number of fundamental rights and freedoms, including the right to be free from inhuman or degrading treatment and torture, and protection of the right to own property, receive an education, vote, and speak freely.

Section 11 sets the marriage age at 18. Section 12 allows authorization of marriage of persons under 18 but above 16 years of age in exceptional circumstances, after obtaining authorization from a Judge or Magistrate. Furthermore, section 13 provides that a marriage of a minor is not to be solemnized without consent of parents and other administrative steps.

The Act abolishes the customary rule of primogeniture in as far as it applies to the law of succession and further extends the application of the Intestate Succession Act to the deceased estates of Africans who die intestate (without a will) and provides guidelines for interpreting the Intestate Succession Act in order to give effect to the new provisions and to ensure the protection of the rights of women to inherit.

Die Wet op Hervorming van die Gewoontereg van Opvolging en Regulering van Verwante Aangeleenthede 11 (2009)

Geslags diskriminasie, Skadelike traditionele gebruike, Eiendom en erfenisregte​

Die Wet skaf die gebruiklike rëel van primogeniture af vir sover dit van toepassing is op die erfreg en brei die toepassing van de Wet op Intestate Opvolging verder uit op die afgestorwe boedels van Afrikane wat intestaat sterf (sonder ‘n testament) en bevat riglyne vir die inerpretasie van die Intestate Opvolgingswet om uitvoering te gee aan die nuwe bepalings en om die beskerming van die regte van vroue om te erf te verseker.

Section 9 of the Constitution provides for the right to equality. Section 9(1) provides that "Everyone is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and benefit of the law." Section 9(3) states that "The State may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, color, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language and birth". Section 9(4) provides that "No person may unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds in terms of subsection (3). National legislation must be enacted to prevent or prohibit unfair discrimination." Finally, subsection (5) provides that "Discrimination on one or more of the grounds listed in subsection (3) is unfair unless it is established that the discrimination is fair." This includes discrimination on the basis of gender, sex or pregnancy.

Die Grondwet van die Republiek van Suid Afrika (1996)

Geslags diskriminasie​

Artikel 9 van die Grondwet maak voorsiening vir die reg op gelykheid.​ Artikel 9(1) bepaal dat “Almal gelyk is voor die Wet en het die reg op gelyke beskerming en voordeel van die Wet”. Artikel 9(3) bepaal dat “die Staat nie onbillik direk of indirek mag diskrimineer teen iemand op een of meer gronde nie, insluitend ras, geslag, seksuele orientasie, swangerskap, huwelikstatus, etniese of sosiale oorsprong, kleur, ouderdom, gestremdheid, godsdiens, gewete, geloof, kultuur, taal en geboorte nie“. Artikel 9(4) bepaal dat “Geen persoon mag regstreeks of onregstreeks onbillik teen iemand diskrimineer op een of meer gronde ingevolge subartikel (3) nie. Nasionale wetgewing moet verorden word om onbillike diskriminasie te voorkom of te belet” Ten slotte bepaal subartikel (5) dat “ Diskriminasie op grond van een of meer van die gelystes in subartikel (3) onbillik is, tensy daar vasgestel word dat die diskriminasie wel billik is.” Dit sluit in diskriminasie op grond van geslag of swangerskap.

The Marriage Law of the People’s Republic of China was adopted by the National People’s Congress on September 10, 1980 and amended on April 28, 2001. Article 2 provides that the marriage system is “based on the free choice of partners, on monogamy and on equality between man and woman.” Article 3 prohibits interference by a third party, mercenary marriage and exaction of money or gifts in connection with marriage. Article 6 provides the minimal marriage age is twenty-two for men and twenty for women. Article 13 provides that husband and wife shall have equal status in the family. Article 34 provides that “a husband may not apply for a divorce when his wife is pregnant, or within one year after the birth of the child, or within six months after the termination of her gestation.” Article 43 provides that neighborhood committee, villagers committee or the unit[1] to which the family belongs have an obligation to deter domestic violence. English version available here.

离婚、家庭暴力、包办婚姻与早婚、性别歧视

本法于1980年9月10日第五届全国人民代表大会通过，于2001年4月28日修正。第二条规定中国实行婚姻自由、一夫一妻、男女平等的婚姻制度。第六条禁止包办、买卖婚姻和其他干涉婚姻自由的行为，禁止借婚姻索取财物。第六条规定结婚年龄，男不得早于二十二周岁，女不得早于二十周岁。第十三条规定夫妻在家庭中地位平等。第三十四条规定女方在怀孕期间、分娩后一年内或中止妊娠后六个月内，男方不得提出离婚。第四十三条规定居民委员会、村民委员会以及所在单位应当予以劝阻、调解家庭暴力。

[1] “Unit” is a term of art with strong communist connotations, which refers to the company/organization/group to which a person belongs.

Zimbabwe’s new 2013 Constitution addressed women’s rights and gender equality, and its bill of rights addressed damaging cultural and discriminatory practices. A gender commission was also established to accelerate the implementation of provisions related to women. More specifically, the Constitution recognized gender equality and women’s rights among Zimbabwe’s founding values and principles. It mandated that the State and all its institutions consider gender equality in laws and policy, to implement measures that provide care and assistance to mothers, and to grant women opportunities to work. The State must also prevent domestic violence, ensure marriages are consensual, and that there are equal rights in marriages. In the event of dissolution of marriage, the State must provide for the rights of spouses and children. The state is also obliged to afford girls and boys equal educational opportunities. The bill of rights specifically stipulates that women are equal to men, including deserving equal opportunities in political, economic, and social activities. Provision was also made for legislative seats reserved for women in the National Assembly. Finally, gender equality must be considered in making judicial appointments.

This Virginia law provides that a married woman shall have the right to acquire, hold, use, control and dispose of property as if she were unmarried.

Virginia’s Human Rights Act outlines the policy of the Commonwealth to “[s]afeguard all individuals within the Commonwealth from unlawful discrimination because of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, pregnancy, childbirth or related medical conditions, age, marital status, or disability, in places of public accommodation,” including in education, real estate, and employment. The Act defines the “unlawful discriminatory practice” and “gender discrimination” as conduct that violates any Virginia or federal statute or regulation governing discrimination based on race, color, religion, national origin, sex, pregnancy, childbirth or related medical conditions, age, marital status, or disability. The terms “because of sex or gender” or “on the basis of sex or gender” or similar terms in reference to discrimination in the Code and acts of the General Assembly include pregnancy, childbirth or related medical conditions. Women affected by pregnancy, childbirth or related medical conditions shall be treated the same for all purposes as persons not so affected but similar in their abilities or disabilities.

The Rhode Island Fair Housing Practices Act prohibits housing practices that discriminate based on gender identity or expression, which is defined to include a person’s actual or perceived gender, as well as a person’s gender identity, gender-related self-image, gender-related appearance, or gender-related expression; whether or not that gender identity, gender-related self-image, gender-related appearance, or gender-related expression is different from that traditionally associated with the person's sex at birth.

The Social Security Act provides maternity benefits to women through a compulsory combined scheme for sickness, maternity and death benefits through matching employer and employee contributions. The Act establishes the National Medical Benefit Fund to administer the payments for such benefits and the National Pension Fund for pension benefits for those who have retired. The Act also makes a provision for the funding of training programs for disadvantaged and unemployed persons through a Development Fund.

The aim of this Act is to achieve equal employment opportunities through affirmative action plans to redress the conditions of designated persons in the Act who have been previously disadvantaged by past discriminatory laws and practices with the aim of eliminating discrimination in the workplace. The Act also establishes an Employment Equity Commission. Women are specifically mentioned as a designated group. An affirmative action plan achieves its purpose by obliging employers to make equitable efforts to accommodate and further the employment opportunities of those in designated groups. Employers must also fill positions of employment by giving priority and preferential treatment to those in designated groups. Where employers do not adhere to the Act, they may be referred to the Commission or to mediation, and may be placed under review. Furthermore, any person who discriminates against a person who has participated in the proceedings provided for in the Act, or obstructs or prevents compliance with the Act by any party, or fails to comply with certain provisions of the Act can be held criminally liable and on conviction be liable to a fine not exceeding N$16,000 or to imprisonment for a period not exceeding 4 years or both.

The Labour Act (the “Act”) establishes protections for employees and regulates the employer/employee relationship. In particular, this Act prohibits any form of child labor, forced labor, or discrimination and/or sexual harassment in the workplace. The Act also provides for basic conditions of employment to which an employer must adhere, including maternity leave for female employees. An employer may not provide disadvantageous terms in an employment contract or promote unfair labor practices. Violations of this Act expose employers to various penalties. Employees may refer disputes to the Labour Commissioner or the Labour Court to obtain relief.

Among other things, the Children’s Status Act gives children born out of wedlock the same legal privileges as children born to married couples (e.g., inheritance rights, custody, guardianship, etc.) and provides various legal mechanisms (e.g., court orders) to protect these rights.

The Constitution serves as the fundamental law of Namibia and establishes the Republic of Namibia as an independent, secular, democratic, and unitary state safeguarding the rights to justice, liberty, dignity, and equality. Chapter 3 of the Constitution protects fundamental rights and freedoms, including the right to equality and freedom from discrimination, including on the grounds of sex. It also bans child marriages and mandates equal rights for men and women entering into marriage, during the marriage, and at the dissolution of the marriage. Additionally, Parliament may not make any laws that contravene the Constitution, nor can the Executive take any action that abolishes or contravenes Chapter 3 of the Constitution. Any such laws or actions would be invalid.

The Italian Civil Code provides for succession and inheritance, each of which require equal treatment of male and female children, including adopted children (Book II, Title I art. 56). In cases in which the conduct of a spouse or co-habitant causes serious physical or mental harm to the other spouse or co-habitant, but the conduct does not constitute a criminal act, the court may issue a family order of protection. A judge may order the party concerned to stay away from the home, the spouse's place of work, the residences of extended family members, and the children's school (Book I, Title IX, art. 342). The judge can also order the intervention of social services or a family mediation center.

Il codice civile italiano disciplina le successioni e l’eredità e dispone il pari trattamento per i figli e le figlie, anche qualora siano adottivi (Libro II, Titolo I, art. 536). Nel caso in cui la condotta di un coniuge o convivente causi seri danni fisici o morali all’altro coniuge o convivente, ma la condotta non sia penalmente rilevante, il giudice può emettere un ordine di protezione familiare. Il giudice può ordinare al coniuge o convivente che ha tenuto la condotta abusiva di non avvicinarsi alla casa, al posto di lavoro del coniuge, al domicilio deii membri della famiglia, e alla scuola dei figli (Libro I, Titolo IX, art. 342 ter). Il giudice può anche disporre l’intervento dei servizi sociali o di un centro di mediazione familiare.

Section 1577 of the Portuguese Civil Code provides for the right of marriage, regardless of gender, to anyone over the age of 16, provided that whoever wishes to marry before the age of 18 must also present an authorization of their parents or legal guardians. The Civil Code also provides that marriage requires free will of both parties, and therefore any marriage that is performed without the consent of both spouses is void.

A seção 1577 do Código Civil Português prevê o direito ao casamento, independente de gênero, para qualquer pessoa acima de 16 anos, prevendo que qualquer pessoa que desejar se casar antes dos 18 anos deve apresentar uma autorização dos pais ou responsáveis legais. O Código Civil também prevê que o casamento requer a livre vontade das duas partes, e então qualquer casamento que acontecer sem a vontade de ambos os cônjuges é nulo.

Chapter VI of Title 8 (Crimes against Life and Physical Integrity) delineates the circumstances under which abortion is illegal and establishes the penalties performing illegal abortions. Pursuant to Article 267 of the Criminal Code, anyone who, without complying with public health regulations established in respect of abortions, performs an abortion or in any way destroy the embryo, with the consent of the pregnant woman, is subject to a penalty of imprisonment for three months up to one year or a fine of 100 to 300 cuotas. If an abortion is performed (1) for profit, (2) outside of official institutions or (3) by a person that is a physician, such person is subject to an increased punishment of imprisonment for two to five years. Pursuant to Article 268, an individual who purposefully destroys the embryo (a) without using any force or violence on the pregnant woman, but without her consent, is subject to two to five years’ imprisonment or (b) with the use of any force or violence on the pregnant woman, is subject to three to eight years’ imprisonment. If concurrently with the occurrence of (a) or (b), any of the circumstances described in (1), (2) or (3) also exist, the punishment is increased to imprisonment for four to ten years. If a pregnant woman dies as a result of any of the above actions, the offending person is subject to imprisonment for a period of five to twelve years. Articles 270 and 271, respectively, prescribe the punishments for those who, without intending to do so, cause an abortion and for those who prescribe any abortion-inducing substance to destroy the embryo.

Chapter I of Title XI covers crimes against the normal development of sexual relations. Article 298 prescribes a penalty of four to ten years imprisonment for anyone who rapes a woman (either through vaginal intercourse or contra naturam) if during the criminal event any of the following circumstances occurs: (a) use of force or sufficient intimidation in order to achieve the goal or (b) if the victim is in a mentally disturbed state or suffers from temporary insanity, or the victim is deprived of reason or sense for any reason, or unable to resist, or lacks the ability to understand the consequences of her actions or to conform her conduct. Article 298 prescribes a term of imprisonment of 7 to 15 years if (a) the event is carried out with the participation of two or more persons, (b) if the perpetrator dresses up in military uniform or purports to be a public official, in each case, to facilitate consummating the act or (c) if the victim is over 12 and under 14 years of age. Finally, the Article prescribes a term of imprisonment of 15 to 30 years or the death penalty if (a) the event is carried out by a person who has previously been sanctioned for the same crime, (b) as a result of the act, the victim suffers serious injuries or illness, or (c) if the perpetrator knows that he is infected with a sexually transmitted disease. Anyone who rapes a minor who is under 12 years of age will be punished with either a term of imprisonment of 15 to 30 years or the death penalty, even if none of the circumstances described in the preceding sentence occur. Article 299 of the Criminal Code sanctions individuals guilty of “active” pedophilia. Any person who commits an act of “active” pedophilia using violence or intimidation, or by taking advantage of the fact that the victim is deprived of reason or sense or unable to resist, will be punished with imprisonment for seven to 15 years. Such penalty increases to 15 to 30 years or death if (a) the victim is a minor under 14 years of age, even if the circumstances set forth in the immediately preceding sentence are not present, (b) if, as a consequence of the criminal act, the victim suffers serious injuries or illness or (c) if the perpetrator has been previously sanctioned for the same crime.

Article 295 imposes a punishment of imprisonment for a term of six months to two years or a fine of 200 to 500 cuotas, or both, to anyone who discriminates, or promotes or incites, discrimination, against another person, with manifestations in an offensive manner, on account of sex, race, color or national origin, or with actions to obstruct or impede, with motives relating to sex, race, color or national original, the exercise or enjoyment of rights of equality set forth in the Constitution. Any person who spreads ideas based on the superiority of races or racial hatred or commits, or incites, acts of violence against any race or group of people of another color or ethnic origin, shall be subject to the same punishment as indicated above.

El Capítulo VI del Título 8 (Delitos contra la vida y la integridad física) describe las circunstancias bajo las cuales el aborto es ilegal y establece las sanciones por realizar abortos ilegales. En conformidad con el artículo 267 del Código Penal, cualquier persona que, sin cumplir con las normas de salud pública establecidas con respecto a los abortos, realice un aborto o destruya de cualquier modo el embrión, con el consentimiento de la mujer embarazada, está sujeta a una pena de prisión. Por tres meses hasta un año o una multa de 100 a 300 cuotas. Si se realiza un aborto (1) con fines de lucro, (2) fuera de las instituciones oficiales o (3) por una persona que es un médico, dicha persona está sujeta a un aumento de la pena de prisión de dos a cinco años. En conformidad con el Artículo 268, una persona que destruye a propósito el embrión (a) sin usar ninguna fuerza o violencia contra la mujer embarazada, pero sin su consentimiento, está sujeta de dos a cinco años de prisión o (b) con el uso de cualquier fuerza o violencia en la mujer embarazada, está sujeto de tres a ocho años de prisión. Si concurrentemente con la ocurrencia de (a) o (b), cualquiera de las circunstancias descritas en (1), (2) o (3) también existen, el castigo se incrementa a la prisión de cuatro a diez años. Si una mujer embarazada muere como resultado de cualquiera de las acciones anteriores, la persona ofensora está sujeta a prisión por un período de cinco a doce años. Los artículos 270 y 271, respectivamente, prescriben los castigos para aquellos que, sin la intención de hacerlo, causan un aborto y para aquellos que prescriben cualquier sustancia inductora del aborto para destruir el embrión.

El Capítulo I del Título XI cubre los delitos contra el desarrollo normal de las relaciones sexuales. El artículo 298 prescribe una pena de cuatro a diez años de prisión para toda persona que viole a una mujer (ya sea por coito vaginal o contra naturam) si durante el evento criminal ocurre alguna de las siguientes circunstancias: (a) uso de la fuerza o suficiente intimidación para: lograr la meta o (b) si la víctima está en un estado mentalmente perturbado o sufre de locura temporal, o si la víctima está privada de razón o sentido por cualquier razón, o no puede resistirse, o carece de la capacidad de entender las consecuencias de las acciones o para conformar su conducta. El artículo 298 prescribe un período de prisión de 7 a 15 años si (a) el evento se lleva a cabo con la participación de dos o más personas, (b) si el perpetrador se viste de uniforme militar o pretende ser un funcionario público, en en cada caso, para facilitar la consumación del acto o (c) si la víctima es mayor de 12 años y menor de 14 años. Finalmente, el artículo prescribe un período de prisión de 15 a 30 años o la pena de muerte si (a) el evento es llevado a cabo por una persona que ha sido sancionada previamente por el mismo delito, (b) como resultado del acto, la víctima sufre lesiones o enfermedades graves, o (c) si el autor sabe que está infectado con una enfermedad de transmisión sexual. Cualquier persona que viole a un menor de edad menor de 12 años será castigada con una pena de prisión de 15 a 30 años o con la pena de muerte, incluso si no ocurre ninguna de las circunstancias descritas en la oración anterior. El artículo 299 del Código Penal sanciona a las personas culpables de pedofilia "activa". Cualquier persona que cometa un acto de pedofilia "activa" mediante el uso de la violencia o la intimidación, o aprovechando el hecho de que la víctima está privada de razón o sentido o no puede resistir, será castigada con pena de prisión de siete a 15 años. Dicha penalización aumenta a 15 a 30 años o fallece si (a) la víctima es menor de 14 años, incluso si las circunstancias establecidas en la oración inmediatamente anterior no están presentes, (b) si, como consecuencia de la acto criminal, la víctima sufre lesiones graves o enfermedad o (c) si el autor ha sido previamente sancionado por el mismo delito.

El artículo 295 impone una pena de prisión de seis meses a dos años o una multa de 200 a 500 cuotas, o ambas, a cualquier persona que discrimine, promueva o incite a la discriminación de otra persona, con manifestaciones de manera ofensiva. , debido al sexo, raza, color u origen nacional, o con acciones para obstruir o impedir, con motivos relacionados con el sexo, raza, color u origen nacional, el ejercicio o disfrute de los derechos de igualdad establecidos en la Constitución. Cualquier persona que difunda ideas basadas en la superioridad de las razas o el odio racial o cometa, o incite, actos de violencia contra cualquier raza o grupo de personas de otro color u origen étnico, estará sujeta al mismo castigo que se indicó anteriormente.

Article 44 of Cuba’s Constitution states that women and men enjoy equal economic, political, cultural, social and familial rights and that Cuba (the “State”) “guarantees that women will be offered the same opportunities and possibilities as men to achieve their full participation in the development of the country.” Article 44 further states that the State grants working women paid maternity leave before and after childbirth, and temporary work options compatible with their maternal function.

El Artículo 44 de la Constitución cubana establece que las mujeres y los hombres gozan de iguales derechos económicos, políticos, culturales, sociales y familiares y que Cuba (el “Estado”) “garantiza que las mujeres tendrán las mismas oportunidades y posibilidades que los hombres para lograr su plena participación en el desarrollo del país.” El Artículo 44 establece además que el Estado otorga a las trabajadoras licencia de maternidad remunerada antes y después del parto y opciones de trabajo temporal compatibles con su función materna.

Article 260 punishes spouses who conceal from their spouse a legal barrier to marriage with a maximum sentence of five years imprisonment. Article 284 punishes adulterous spouses and their partners, regardless of their marital status. The penal code only criminalizes acts of rape outside marriage unless the wife is underage and incurs injuries as a result. Articles 285 prohibits forcing or threatening force a woman to have sexual intercourse outside of marriage and punishes violators with a maximum penalty of 12 years. Article 286 punishes sexual intercourse with an unconscious or helpless woman with a maximum of nine years imprisonment. If there is a complaint, Article 287 imposes a maximum sentence of nine years imprisonment for “carnal knowledge” of a girl outside of marriage when the man knows or reasonably should presume that she is less than 15 years of age. Prosecutions are triggered automatically when the girl is less than 12 years of age. Article 288 punishes husbands that have “carnal knowledge” of their wives who “are not yet marriageable” if it results in injury (four years imprisonment), serious injury (eight years), or death (12 years). Article 292 punishes adults that have carnal knowledge of those they know to be or reasonably should know to be minors of the same sex with a maximum of five years imprisonment. Article 293 punishes sexual abuse of a minor with a maximum of five years imprisonment. Incest is punishable by a maximum of seven years imprisonment pursuant to Article 294. Article 297 prohibits trafficking in woman and boys, which carries a maximum sentence of six years imprisonment. Article 299 imposes a four-year maximum sentence for abortion and provides for a one-third increase in sentencing for professionals (e.g., doctor, midwife) who perform abortions.

This law sets the legal age of marriage without parental consent at 21 years of age. With parental consent, girls may marry at age 16 and men may marry at age 19. Marriages under the legal age are void and there are penalties for knowingly entering into or authorizing child or early marriage. The law also sets the requirements for polygamy, which include the first wife’s inability to fulfill her spousal duties (e.g., bearing children), the permission of the man’s current wife or wives, permission from the local Court, and proof that the man will treat all of his wives and children fairly and provide for them equally. Women are prohibited from marrying a second husband. The law also provides the conditions for the cancellation (annulments and divorce) of a marriage, the obligations of husbands and wives, property rights of spouses, the obligations of parents to their children, the legitimacy of children, the requirements of guardianship, foreign marriages, and the children of mixed-religion marriages.

Article 4(6) of the Law on Employment and Work of Foreigners provides that when employing a foreigner, the employer must not put the job seeker in less favourable position due to race, color of skin, gender, age, health condition, that is, disability, religious, political or other convictions, trade union membership, national or social background, family status, property status, sexual orientation, or due to other personal circumstances. (English translation available from the ILO through the external link.)

The Law on Prevention of and Protection from Discrimination (the “LPPD”), which entered into force in 2011, introduced the concepts of direct and indirect discrimination (Article 6), instruction to discriminate (Article 9) and harassment and sexual harassment (Article 7). The LPPD covers almost all grounds of discrimination as covered by EU law i.e. “ sex, race, colour, gender, belonging to a marginalized group, ethnic origin, language, nationality, social background, religion or religious beliefs, other types of beliefs, education, political affiliation, personal or social status, mental and physical impediment, age, family or marital status, property status, health condition or any other basis anticipated by a law or ratified international agreement." However, the LPPD does not cover discrimination based on sexual orientation. Article 9 of the LPPD also covers sexual harassment, which states that “sexual harassment shall be unwanted behavior of sexual nature, manifested physically, verbally or in any other manner, aimed at or resulting in violation of the dignity of a person, especially when creating a hostile, intimidating, degrading or humiliating environment." Article 4 of the LPPD covers a wide scope on the prohibition on harrassments, which includes: (a) labour and labour relations; (b) education, science and sport; (c) social security, including the area of social protection, pension and disability insurance, health insurance and health protection; (d) judiciary and administration; (e) housing; (f) public information and media; (g) access to goods and services; (h) membership and activity in unions, political parties, citizens’ associations and foundations or other membership-based organizations; (i) culture, and (j) other areas determined by law. (English translation available from the ILO through the external link.)

The Indonesia Constitution does not discuss gender or women specifically, but instead guarantees rights to “him/her.” The 1945 Constitution is the basis for the government of Indonesia and it carries the highest legal authority. Article 27 of the 1945 Constitution states that: “(i) all citizens shall have equal status accorded by law and the government, and are obliged to respect the law and government without exception; and (ii) each citizen shall be entitled to work and to have a reasonable standard of living.” Article 28I of the Constitution adopted in 1945, and amended in 2002, includes the following provisions: “The rights to life, freedom from torture, freedom of thought and conscience, freedom of religion, freedom from enslavement, recognition as a person before the law, and the right not to be tried under a law with retrospective effect are all human rights that cannot be limited under any circumstances.” Article 28B of the Constitution adopted in 1945, and amended in 2002, includes the following provisions: “Every child shall have the right to live, to grow and to develop, and shall have the right to protection from violence and discrimination.” Article 28G of the Constitution adopted in 1945, and amended in 2002, includes the following provisions: “Every person shall have the right to be free from torture or inhumane and degrading treatment, and shall have the right to obtain political asylum from another country.” (External link includes unofficial English translation.)

The Anti-Discrimination Act prohibits discrimination in certain settings on the grounds of any designated attribute, including sex, sexuality, marital status, pregnancy, parenthood, and breastfeeding. Unlike in other Australian jurisdictions, “gender identity” and “sex characteristics” are not included as designated attributes in the Northern Territory. The settings in which discrimination based on a designated attribute is prohibited include: education, work, accommodation, provision of goods, services and facilities, clubs, and superannuation. Discrimination includes any distinction, restriction, or preference made based on a designated attribute that has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity, and harassment based on a designated attribute. Certain exceptions from the prohibition of discrimination exist, including: certain religious circumstances; provision of rights or privileges connected to childbirth; and discrimination aimed at reducing disadvantage. Alleged victims of prohibited discrimination can lodge a complaint against the discriminating person or entity, which will trigger a conciliation. If the matter is not resolved through conciliation, the Northern Territory Anti-Discrimination Commissioner may assess the complaint. If the Commissioner finds that the complaint is substantiated, the Northern Territory Civil and Administrative Tribunal can order that the discriminator pay compensation to the victim, discontinue the discriminating behavior, or do any other act specified by the Tribunal.

Article 9 of the FDRE Constitution provides that all international treaties ratified by Ethiopia are integral parts of the law of the land. Similarly, Article 13.2 provides that fundamental rights and freedoms shall be interpreted in a manner conforming to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenants on Human Rights and International instruments adopted by Ethiopia. Ethiopia has ratified many of these treaties including ICCPR, ICESCR, and CEDAW. Article 35 of the FDRE Constitution pertains to the Rights of Women. The article provides for equal rights under the constitution, equal rights with men in marriage, entitlement to affirmative measures, protection from harmful traditional practices, the right to maternity pay, the right to consultation, property rights (including acquiring and controlling and transferring property), employment rights, and access to family planning education. It is worth noting that this article explicitly imposes an obligation and accountability on the state to protect women from violence at Article 35.4: “The State shall enforce the right of women to eliminate the influences of harmful customs. Laws, customs and practices that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women are prohibited.”

The Act regulates sexually transmitted diseases including HIV, provides information for treatment of HIV, and provides punishment for violations. §18.3 of the Act provides that the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, the Ministry of Education, and the Ministry of Youth and Sports shall provide education on the prevention and control of HIV. §18.4-18.5 provide that educating the public regarding HIV and AIDS is part of the national response, and the government shall train all relevant personnel. While §18.7 provides that all employees shall receive the HIV training regarding the prevention and control of HIV and AIDS. Several portions of the act speak to the rights of women and girls specifically. §18.9(a) of the Act notes that when providing HIV and AIDS service to women and girls differences in sex and gender should be considered. §18.9(b) directs the government agencies, when implementing the strategies, policies and programs to address the following issues: protection of the equality of women in private and public life, to address their rights to refuse sex and to access reproductive services independently, to address men’s equal responsibilities in sexual and reproductive health, to increase educational, economic, and employment opportunities to women, to reduce inequalities in laws regarding marital issues, and to protect women’s rights in religious contexts. §18.9(c) covers pregnant women with HIV and grants them the right to marry. The government shall provide them with consultation and information regarding future pregnancy decisions and the protection of future children from HIV. Section 18.9(d) requires the government to implement national education and training to health care providers to reduce HIV infection caused by sexual assault, protect the confidentiality of the HIV test result, report the sexual violence, and assist the investigation of such violence, and to develop and implement education and training for security personnel and prosecuting authorities in conducting investigations and prosecutions about the sexual violence. §18.27 provides that willful transmission of HIV by an infected person who knows his or her HIV test constitutes first degree felony. §18.28 prohibits discrimination on the basis of HIV status.

This law defines “customary marriage” as the marriage between a man and a woman performed according to the tribal tradition of their locality and provides that a wife’s rights and duties within a customary marriage are the same as a wife’s rights and duties in a statutory marriage (a statutory marriage is a civil marriage license under the Domestic Relations Law). §2.1 provides that all customary marriages are legal, and the duties and liabilities of the statutory wife shall be accorded to all customary wives. §2.2 provides that the husband shall not recover the dowry from the wife or her parents; while §2.3 provides that a customary wife receives one-third of her husband’s property upon marriage. §2.6 provides that a customary wife has exclusive right to the properties she receives before or during the marriage, but she needs the husband’s consent to conduct business in her own name. §2.6 also states, however, that if the husband attempts to control his wife’s property he will have committed theft of property and he will be subject to a fine for such theft. §2.9 establishes that the minimum age for a tribal woman to enter into a customary marriage is 16, while §2.10 provides that the parents shall not choose the husband for their daughter against her will. Various sections provide for the rights of women on the event of her husband’s death: §3.2 states that a widow in a customary marriage is entitled to one-third of her deceased husband’s property; §3.3 provides that the widow has the freedom to enter into a new marriage upon the death of her husband; §3.5 provides that the widow has the right to petition to the probate court to administer the property of the decedent; §3.4 prohibits the husband’s family from compelling a widow to marry her deceased husband’s relative; and §3.7 establishes that the living spouse retain the right to custody of the minor children.

Art. 8 of the Constitution provides that all people are equal and no person may be discriminated against because of gender. The Constitution also states that men and women have equal rights and the law shall ensure their equality. Art. 35 provides for protection of fundamental rights even in private relationships.

On May 14, 2013, the National Justice Council issued a resolution stating that competent authorities are not allowed to refuse (a) to celebrate same-sex civil marriages nor (b) to convert same-sex common-law marriages (stable union) into civil marriages. The National Justice Council is a public administrative body that aims to advance the work of the Brazilian judicial system. The resolution was issued after the Supreme Court declared in 2011 that it is unconstitutional to apply a different legal treatment to same-sex common-law marriages (stable union), from the one applied to heterosexual common-law marriages (stable union).

Em maio de 2013, o Conselho Nacional de Justiça (CNJ), que é o órgão da administração pública que visa aperfeiçoar o trabalho do sistema judiciário brasileiro, emitiu resolução estabelecendo que as autoridades competentes não poderiam se recursar a habilitar e celebrar casamento civil entre pessoas do mesmo sexo ou se recusar a converter a união estável entre pessoas do mesmo sexo em casamento civil. Referida resolução foi emitida após o Supremo Tribunal Federal – STF declarar, em 2011, que é inconstitucional a aplicação de tratamento jurídico distinto aos casamentos e união estável entre pessoas do mesmo sexo.

This act regulates the procedure of creation and operation of political parties. It requires a 30% gender quota for all party lists. (i.e., the minimum percentage of men and women in the list). It also entitled political parties to ideological, organizational, and material support for the creation of women's and other associations of citizens. If a political party violates citizens' equality based on their gender or other grounds, the authorized central body of the executive power should immediately file an administrative lawsuit requesting that the court ban the political party.

Закон регулює порядок створення та діяльності політичних партій. Цей закон встановив 30% гендерну квоту для всіх партійних списків (мінімальний рівень представництва жінок і чоловіків у виборчому списку кандидатів). Закон України "Про політичні партії" надав політичним партіям право на ідейну, організаційну та матеріальну підтримку створення жіночих та інших об'єднань громадян. У разі вчинення політичною партією дій, що порушують рівноправність громадян за ознакою статі чи за іншими ознаками, уповноважений центральний орган виконавчої влади повинен невідкладно подати до суду адміністративний позов про заборону політичної партії.

The Criminal and Criminal Procedural Codes of Ukraine were amended in December 2017 to adopt provisions of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention) adopted in 2011. As a result of these amendments, forced marriage (i.e. forcing a person to marry or to continue being in a forced marriage, or to enter into a cohabitation without official registration of marriage, or to continue such cohabitation) is punishable by restraint of liberty for up to three years or imprisonment for the same period and domestic violence (i.e. deliberate systematic violence against a spouse or ex-spouse or other person with whom the perpetrator is in family or intimate relationship, leading to physical or psychological suffering, disorder of health, disability, emotional dependence) is punishable with a sentence of public work for up to 240 hours, detention for up to six months, restraint of liberty for up to five years, or imprisonment for up to two years. In addition, the amendments: (i) introduce new crimes, such as “illegal abortion or sterilization” (i.e., performed by a person without medical education or without consent of the victim) which is punishable by imprisonment for up to 3 years; (ii) establish punishment for rape of a spouse or ex-spouse or other person with whom the perpetrator is in a family or intimate relationship (imprisonment for up to 10 years); and (iii) increase punishment for sexual violence to up to 15 years, if such acts resulted in serious consequences.

Article 24 of Ukraine’s Constitution prohibits privileges and restrictions based on sex (and other grounds), and requires equal opportunities for women and men in socio-political and cultural activities, access to education, work and remuneration, and pension privileges. It also mandates special measures for labor protection, women’s health, and creating conditions enabling women to combine work and maternity. Article 51 provides that marriage is based on the free consent of a woman and a man. Each spouse has equal rights and responsibilities in marriage and family. Consent is valid if it is a person's exercise of free will, with consideration of attending circumstances.

Статтею 24 Конституції України встановлено, що не може бути встановлено привілеїв чи обмежень за статтю чи за іншими ознаками, а також гарантується, що рівність прав жінки і чоловіка забезпечується: наданням жінкам рівних з чоловіками можливостей у громадсько-політичній і культурній діяльності, у здобутті освіти і професійній підготовці, у праці та винагороді за неї; спеціальними заходами щодо охорони праці і здоров'я жінок, встановленням пенсійних пільг; створенням умов, які дають жінкам можливість поєднувати працю з материнством; правовим захистом, матеріальною і моральною підтримкою материнства і дитинства, включаючи надання оплачуваних відпусток та інших пільг вагітним жінкам і матерям. Статтею 51 встановлено, що шлюб ґрунтується на вільній згоді жінки та чоловіка. Кожен із подружжя має рівні права та обов’язки у шлюбі та сім’ї. Примітка: Згода вважається добровільною, якщо вона є результатом вільного волевиявлення особи, з урахуванням супутніх обставин.

Article 976 states that children born to Iranian fathers are considered Iranian subjects. No clause exists extending the same rights to children born of Iranian mothers where the child’s father is not Iranian. This provision demonstrates that Iranian women cannot pass on their Iranian nationality to their children.

According to Iranian law, the husband is the exclusive holder of the position of “head of the family” (Art. 1105). As such, the husband provides his wife with the cost of maintenance (Art. 1106), “which includes dwelling, clothing, food, furniture, and provision of a servant if the wife is accustomed to have servant or if she needs one because of illness” (Art. 1107) Article 1108 creates a duty on the part of women to satisfy the sexual needs of their husbands at all times. This is the tamkin (submission) requirement of Sharia law. If a wife refuses to fulfill her duties, she may be barred from receiving maintenance payments. The husband determines his wife’s place of residence and thus controls her freedom of movement (Art. 1114). If the dwelling of the wife and husband in the same house involves the risk of bodily or financial injury or that to the dignity of the wife, she can choose a separate dwelling. If the alleged risk is proved, the court will not order her to return to the house of the husband and, so long as she is authorized not to return to the house, her cost of maintenance will be on the charge of her husband (Article 1115). In addition, the husband may prevent his wife from exercising a certain profession if he deems it “incompatible with the family interests or the dignity of himself or his wife” (Art. 1117).

Article 147 of the Islamic Penal Code specifies that the age of maturity triggering criminal responsibility is 15 Islamic lunar calendar years for boys, but only nine Islamic lunar calendar years for girls. This signifies that young girls can be charged as criminally responsible adults in Iran before they reach the age of puberty. Articles 237-239 forbid same-sex kissing and touching, which will be punished by 31-74 lashes. Female genital touching (musaheqeh) is punished by 100 lashes. Article 225 mandates the death penalty for adultery (zina), which international commentators have noted is disproportionately applied to women (e.g., UN Special Rapporteur for Violence Against Women report: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/A-68-340.pdf). Article 199 describes the number and gender of witnesses needed to prove various crimes; no crimes may be proven with female witnesses alone and any female witness requires corroboration of a man and another woman. (Full Persian version of the Penal Code available at: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=103202)

Under Article 14 of the Japanese Constitution, “all citizens of Japan are equal under the law, and shall not be discriminated against in political, economic or social relations on the basis of sex.” Article 24 of the Constitution states that marriage can only be formed through the mutual consent of both sexes, and it must be maintained through mutual cooperation of husband and wife. Furthermore, Article 24 provides that “husband and wife have equal rights” under the law. Based Article 14 and Article 24, the following laws were enacted: the Basic Act for a Gender Equal Society requires the state and local public entities to take steps towards the formation of a gender-equal society; the Act on Securing of Equal Opportunity and Treatment Between Men and Women in Employment prohibits employers from discriminating based on gender; and the Act on the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims etc., and the Stalker Control Law protect women from gender-based violence.

日本国憲法第14条では、「すべて国民は、法の下に平等であって、人種、信条、性別、社会的身分又は門地により、政治的、経済的又は社会的関係において、差別されない」とある。憲法第24条では、「婚姻は、両性の合意のみに基いて成立し、夫婦が同等の権利を有することを基本として、相互の協力により、維持されなければならない」とある。第14条と第24条に基づき、国や地方公共団体が男女共同参画社会の形成に向けて取り組むことを定めた「男女共同参画社会基本法」、事業主が性別による差別を行うことを禁止した「雇用の分野における男女の均等な機会及び待遇の確保等に関する法律」、女性を性暴力から守るための「配偶者からの暴力の防止及び被害者の保護等に関する法律」や「ストーカー規制法」などの法律が制定された。

The intention behind the Rome Statute of 2002 (“Rome Statute” or “Statute”) in establishing the International Criminal Court (“ICC”) is to prosecute the most serious crimes of international concern and to end impunity. The Rome Statute is significant in being the first international criminal law instrument that recognises forms of sexual violence, such as rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, and enforced sterilization, as distinct war crimes. This legal instrument is also novel in prescribing gender-based crimes as the basis of war crimes or crimes against humanity committed during armed conflicts. In particular, the Statute gives the ICC jurisdiction over gender-based crimes if they constitute acts of genocide. In this case the crimes, such as rape, can be an integral part of the destruction inflicted upon the targeted groups and may be charged as genocide. The Prosecutor must further apply and interpret the Statute in line with internationally recognised human rights, including women’s human rights and gender equality. The States Parties should also consider the need to appoint judges with legal expertise on violence against women or children.

Uganda allows for customary law to govern many situations, but the Succession Act restricts their applicability in inheritance cases. It enshrines women’s right to inherit from husbands, but also privileges men because 1) the property of a married woman who dies intestate automatically will go to her spouse, unlike a man who dies intestate; 2) the matrimonial home will go to the legal heir, the determination of which prioritizes male relatives; 3) a widow (or widows in polygamous marriages, who must share) may only inherit 15% of her husband’s estate; and 4) maintenance and occupancy rights of widows terminate if they remarry.

Original Act (1906)

The Customary Marriage Act (CMA) sets parameters for acceptable customary marriages and requirements for registration and dissolution. Customary marriages are prohibited if the female party is younger than 16 years old or the male party is younger than 18 years old, either party is of unsound mind, they are too closely related, the marriage is otherwise prohibited by one of the parties’ customs, or one of the parties is still in an existing monogamous marriage. Subsequent monogamous or Muslim marriages will not be recognized and are void if there was a pre-existing customary marriage.

The defendant was charged the defilement of the complainant, a 17-year-old girl. In his defence, the accused claimed that he could not get an erection (albeit, apparently, only after the magistrate raised the question himself). During the proceedings, a woman stood up in court and volunteered to ascertain whether the accused could obtain an erection. One week later, the magistrate, prosecutor, court interpreter, accused, complainant, and the woman who had volunteered met in the magistrate’s chambers to witness whether the woman could touch the defendant sexually until he obtained an erection. The magistrate observed, after approximately 30 minutes of sexual contact, that the accused’s “penis got a bit hard but not very hard.” Following a complaint from the complainant’s parent, the High Court was requested to review the conduct of the magistrate to determine the veracity of the complaint. At this point, the magistrate had not reached a verdict. By way of a preliminary conclusion, the High Court noted that “this illegal show seemed to come out of the blue” and found that the manner of investigation into the accused’s ability to obtain an erection was “raised by the magistrate, thereby making the [High] Court conclude that there were extra judicial discussions” between the accused and the magistrate. The Court also expressed serious concern about secondary victimisation, given that the sexual act occurred in the presence of the complainant. The Court then outlined its reasons for arriving at its ultimate decision, focusing on two matters: the existence of bias and judicial stereotyping. Regarding the first issue, the Court cited caselaw from across common law jurisdictions and the European Court of Human Rights relating to actual or perceived bias. Regarding the second issue, the Court highlighted the significant dangers associated with gender stereotyping on the part of the judiciary. The Court emphasised that judges should be alive to the concerns of victims of sexual offences, specifically that gender stereotypes harm such victims and contribute to further violations of their rights. Presiding officers are obliged to ensure that the courts offer equal access to men and women. In this context, it was emphasised that it matters not only how judges conduct themselves, but also how their conduct could be perceived during a trial. A judicial officer has to be aware of the negative results of displaying condescension toward women in court. In this case, the complainant was concerned about judicial bias, corruption, and/or collusion with the accused. The decision implied that the magistrate’s conduct could have arisen from his bias against, and stereotyping of, the complainant as a complainant in a sexual offence case. The Court highlighted that the judiciary could not condone the perpetuation of “structural gender-based violence, where courts instill fear in women and girls who are victims of sexual offences, using the criminal justice system.” Therefore, in order to create a discrimination-free judicial system that victims can rely on, it is incumbent on the judiciary to remain cognisant of its own biases and stereotypes, especially in the context of victims of sexual offences, and conduct cases in a manner which counteracts such biases and stereotypes. In conclusion, the High Court ordered a retrial under a different magistrate, and that the complainant and her family be provided with the resources needed to ensure her attendance at court. The Court referred (i) the magistrate’s conduct in the trial and (ii) the wider question of gender bias among judicial officers to the Judicial Service Commission. Finally, the Court recommended that the Chief Justice, through the judiciary’s training committee, should develop training programmes to avoid a matter like this re-occurring in the future.

The plaintiff’s husband suffered serious injuries in an explosion, one of which impaired his ability to have sex. In the plaintiff’s claim against her husband’s employer, the Minister for Defence, she claimed compensation for loss of consortium at common law. In the past, this action was available only to a husband. The question asked by the plaintiff was whether this was inconsistent with the Constitution, and in particular its guarantee of equality and implied guarantee of spousal equality. The Supreme Court unanimously agreed that restricting a claim of loss of consortium to husbands only was inconsistent with the Constitution, but disagreed on how to respond to the inconsistency. A majority took the view that the defect should be remedied in a positive manner, by extending the action to wives, while the minority thought that the solution was to abolish the action of loss of consortium entirely. Thus, the majority of the Supreme Court held that the effect of the principle of equality of spouses was to extend the benefit of the common law rule to the wife.

The appellant, a gay man, entered into an agreement with the respondents, a lesbian couple in a civil partnership, to donate sperm to the respondents so they could have a baby. It was agreed that the respondents would have full care and custody of the child, effectively as parents. They were to be fully responsible for the child’s upbringing, and the appellant, the sperm donor, would be, at most, considered a “favourite uncle.” It was explicitly agreed that the appellant would not have any responsibility for the child’s upbringing and would not seek to influence it. However, following the child’s birth, he attempted to assert rights as the father. While not seeking custody, he sought to be appointed as a guardian of the child and to have rights of access. The respondents opposed his application, and it was their intention to move to Australia, which the appellant sought an injunction to prevent. This case constituted the first time in which the superior courts of Ireland dealt with the matter of parenthood in assisted reproduction, and both the High Court and Supreme Court took different views of the case. McD’s application to be appointed guardian under the Guardianship of Infants Act 1964 was unsuccessful in the High Court, which found that the donor had acted dishonestly and deliberately misled them as to his intentions. Emphasising the child’s best interests, the High Court, while acknowledging the importance of the blood link between donor and child, found that this was a rare case in which it was not in the best interests of the child to have a relationship with both of his biological parents. The High Court rejected the applications for guardianship and access, finding that granting them would result in too great a cost to the child: the “loss of a tranquil and calm upbringing.” The Supreme Court took a different approach, however, sympathising with the donor’s perspective. Importantly, the Supreme Court ruled that, under Irish law, the lesbian couple was not a family. There was a strong rejection of the idea of ‘de facto families’ having any legal status or rights in Irish law. This concept was relied on by the High Court, where weight was afforded to the position of the ‘de facto family’ consisting of the couple and the child. In this vein, the Supreme Court rejected the applicability of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The Supreme Court agreed that it was not in the best interests of the child that McD. be appointed guardian, but held that he should have access rights, and remitted the matter to the High Court for determination of the terms of such access. The case is also important regarding the relationship between Irish law and the ECHR, with the Supreme Court highlighting that the Convention is not directly applicable in Irish law and taking a restrictive approach in relation to its interpretation and application. The Supreme Court also warned against domestic courts ‘outpacing’ the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights.

The claimant, a female employee, exercised her right under the Transparency in Wage Structures Act (available here: https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/entgtranspg/BJNR215210017.html) to obtain information from her employer about the average salary in the group of colleagues who performed the same or equivalent work as she did as a head of department. She found that her compensation was below average. The average salary of comparably employed male department heads at the claimant’s employer was 8% higher than that of female department heads, although the person with the highest remuneration within this group was a woman. The claimant’s employer justified the compensation disparity on the basis of the difference of the duration of employment between the individual employees serving as heads of department. The Court held that the employer bears the burden to prove that the reason for the pay disparity is not due to gender discrimination and that the mere assertion that the lower pay is based on other reasons is not sufficient. According to the Court, demonstrating a pay disparity between comparably employed male and female colleagues creates a rebuttable presumption of gender discrimination. This decision is an important step towards equal pay for women and men in Germany, as it places the burden of proof on the employer to prove that a pay disparity is justified by non-discriminatory reasons. This decision effectively promotes the enforcement of the law because an employee often will not be able to prove the actual reason for a disparity in compensation.

Die Klägerin, eine Arbeitnehmerin, machte von ihrem Recht nach dem Entgelttransparenzgesetz (EntGTranspG) Gebrauch, um von ihrem Arbeitgeber Informationen über das Durchschnittsgehalt in der Gruppe der Kollegen zu erhalten, die die gleiche oder eine gleichwertige Arbeit wie sie als Abteilungsleiterin verrichteten und stellte fest, dass sie unter dem durchschnittlichen Vergütungsniveau bezahlt worden war. Das Durchschnittsgehalt der vergleichbar beschäftigten männlichen Abteilungsleiter bei dem Arbeitgeber der Klägerin war 8% höher als das der weiblichen Abteilungsleiter, obwohl die Person mit der höchsten Vergütung innerhalb dieser Gruppe eine Frau war. Der Arbeitgeber des Klägers begründete den Gehaltsunterschied mit der unterschiedlichen Dauer der Beschäftigung der einzelnen Mitarbeiter/innen in der Abteilungsleiterstelle. Das Gericht stellte fest, dass der Arbeitgeber die Beweislast dafür trägt, dass der Grund für die niedrigere Vergütung nicht auf eine Diskriminierung aufgrund des Geschlechts zurückzuführen ist, und dass die bloße Behauptung, dass die niedrigere Vergütung auf andere Gründe zurückzuführen ist, nicht ausreicht. Nach Ansicht des Gerichts schafft der Nachweis von Lohnunterschieden zwischen vergleichbar beschäftigten männlichen Kollegen des Arbeitnehmers/der Arbeitnehmerin eine widerlegbare Vermutung für eine Diskriminierung aufgrund des Geschlechts.

This decision approved the creation of the specialized office referred to as ‘Secretaría Judicial de Género,’ depending upon the Supreme Court of Justice. Since discrimination can sometimes prevent women from accessing justice, the decision adopted measures designed to facilitate access to justice for women. The measures protect women’s rights and legitimate interests with the goal of achieving effective equality. The Court stated that the effective administration of justice requires the creation of such office, as a specialized, highly technical, and competent institutional mechanism with adequate resources to promote a gendered approach on matters of equality and non-discrimination.

Esta decisión aprobó la creación de la oficina especializada denominada “Secretaría Judicial de Género”, dependiente de la Corte Suprema de Justicia. Dado que la discriminación a veces puede impedir que las mujeres accedan a la justicia, la decisión adoptó medidas diseñadas para facilitar el acceso a la justicia de las mujeres. Las medidas protegen los derechos e intereses legítimos de las mujeres con el objetivo de lograr la igualdad efectiva. La Corte señaló que la efectiva administración de justicia requiere la creación de dicha oficina, como un mecanismo institucional especializado, altamente técnico, competente y con recursos adecuados para promover el enfoque de género en materia de igualdad y no discriminación.

This decision established the guidelines for the institutional policy on gender for the Paraguayan Judicial Branch. The Supreme Court agreed on: i) ensuring that users of judicial services receive communications (with an emphasis on gender) in a timely manner that are both easily accessible and understandable; ii) providing information on gender and gender rights; raising awareness on the importance of reporting events that violate individuals’ rights and dignity; iii) publicizing case law that studies gender issues; iv) digitizing the rulings (with a focus on gender issues) issued by different courts; complying with international standards; creating a framework for decision-making that incorporates a gender approach; v) hiring trained personnel to handle gender-related claims.

Esta decisión estableció los lineamientos de la política institucional de género del Poder Judicial de Paraguay. La Corte Suprema acordó: i) asegurar que los usuarios de los servicios judiciales reciban comunicaciones (con énfasis en género) en tiempo y forma que sean de fácil acceso y comprensión; ii) brindar información sobre género y derechos de género; sensibilizar sobre la importancia de denunciar hechos que vulneran los derechos y la dignidad de las personas; iii) difundir jurisprudencia que estudie temas de género; iv) digitalizar las sentencias (con enfoque de género) emitidas por diferentes tribunales; cumplir con los estándares internacionales; crear un marco para la toma de decisiones que incorpore un enfoque de género; v) contratación de personal capacitado para atender reclamos relacionados con el género.

This decision unified court’s criteria regarding issues of protection of motherhood and employment rights for pregnant women. The Constitutional Court analyzed 33 cases where pregnant women were dismissed by their employers after learning of their pregnancy status. The court ruled in favor of reinforced protection of motherhood in the workplace. Such doctrine must be duly applied in all those cases in which a woman is pregnant or during her lactation period. In relation to the dismissal of female workers, the court established criteria that takes into consideration the knowledge of the pregnancy status by the employer. It is argued that in order to dismiss a woman under such circumstances, the employer shall demonstrate (i) that a fair motive can be argued and (ii) that permission from the competent administrative authority has been granted. The required protection measures in cases where the employer dismissed the worker without the aforementioned procedure are as follows: (i) recognition of health benefits, up to the moment the woman acquires the right to claim the economic maternity leave benefit; (ii) reinstatement of the pregnant woman or the renewal of her contract, whenever possible; (iii) in some cases, compensation as provided for in article 239 of the Labor Code.

Esta sentencia unificó los criterios de la Corte Constitucional en temas de protección de la maternidad y derechos laborales de las mujeres embarazadas. La Corte Constitucional analizó 33 casos en los que mujeres embarazadas fueron despedidas por sus empleadores después de conocer su estado de embarazo. El tribunal falló a favor de una protección laboral reforzada de la maternidad en el lugar de trabajo. Tal doctrina debe ser debidamente aplicada en todos aquellos casos en los que una mujer se encuentre embarazada o lactando. En relación con el despido de trabajadoras, la Corte estableció criterios que toman en consideración el conocimiento del estado de embarazo por parte del empleador. Se argumenta que, para despedir a una mujer embarazada, el empleador deberá demostrar (i) que se puede alegar una justa causa y (ii) que se ha otorgado el permiso de la autoridad administrativa competente. Las medidas de protección requeridas en los casos en que el empleador despida a la trabajadora sin el procedimiento antes mencionado son las siguientes: (i) reconocimiento de beneficios de salud, hasta el momento en que la mujer adquiera el derecho a reclamar el beneficio económico de licencia por maternidad; (ii) la reincorporación de la mujer embarazada o la renovación de su contrato, cuando sea posible; (iii) en algunos casos, la indemnización prevista en el artículo 239 del Código del Trabajo.

The case concerned the capacity and dignity of mothers with disabilities. The court ultimately reinstated the mother’s custody of her child, who was given for adoption by the state as a result of the mother’s disability in violation of her rights. The court’s decision served two purposes: (i) to protect the best interests of the child, guarantee their right to have a family, and not be separated from it; and (ii) compliance with all of the state’s obligations towards persons with disabilities and their right to form a family with dignity. The court ordered the Ombudsman’s Office to compose a committee consisting of a doctor, psychologist, and a social worker in order to follow-up with the mother and identify the obstacles and specific problems that she may have in the exercise of her responsibilities when raising her child.

El caso se refería al derecho de la dignidad humana de las madres con discapacidad. La Corte decidió restablecer la custodia de la madre sobre su hijo. El tribunal encontró que existió una violación de los derechos de una madre en situación de discapacidad cuyo hijo fue dado en adopción por el Estado como resultado de la discapacidad de la madre. La decisión de la Corte atendió a dos propósitos: (i) proteger el interés superior del niño y garantizar su derecho a tener una familia y a no ser separado de ella; y (ii) el cumplimiento de todas las obligaciones del Estado hacia las personas con discapacidad y el derecho de las personas en situación de discapacidad a formar una familia en condiciones dignas. Adicionalmente, la Corte ordenó a la Defensoría del Pueblo conformar un comité integrado por un médico, un psicólogo y una trabajadora social con el fin de hacer seguimiento a la madre e identificar los obstáculos y problemas específicos que pueda tener en el ejercicio de sus responsabilidades al criar a su hijo.

The case concerned labor rights and protection of sex workers. The plaintiff, a sex worker, sued her former employer for firing her after she became pregnant. Under articles 236 and 239 of the Colombian Labor Code, a pregnant woman is subject to special labor protection, and therefore cannot be fired without cause and without authorities’ permission. The court consisdered whether pregnant sex workers should have the same labor protection as other professions. Article 13 of the Constitution provides the right of all citizens to be treated equally, as such, the court held it necessary to provide the aforementioned labor protection to sex workers. This conclusion was achieved by virtue of comparative law and legislation, where the protection shall be provided in connection with the right to motherhood. Sex workers, whether men or women, shall not be discriminated and should hold the same rights as any other worker. In this regard, court acknowledged the plaintiff’s right to the financial compensation she was entitled to.

El caso se refería a los derechos laborales y la protección de las trabajadoras sexuales. La demandante, una trabajadora sexual, demandó a su antiguo empleador por despedirla después de quedar embarazada. De conformidad con los artículos 236 y 239 del Código Sustantivo del Trabajo, la mujer embarazada es sujeto de una protección laboral reforzada, por lo que no puede ser despedida sin justa causa y sin permiso de las autoridades competentes. El tribunal analizó si las trabajadoras sexuales embarazadas deberían tener la misma protección laboral que otras profesiones. El artículo 13 de la Constitución establece el derecho de todos los ciudadanos a ser tratados por igual, por lo que el tribunal consideró necesario extender la mencionada protección laboral a las trabajadoras sexuales. Esta conclusión se logró en virtud de análisis de derecho comparado y de la legislación local, donde la protección nace del estado de embarazo. Los trabajadores sexuales, ya sean hombres o mujeres, no deben ser discriminados y deben tener los mismos derechos que cualquier otro trabajador. En este sentido, el tribunal reconoció el derecho de la demandante a la compensación económica a la que tenía derecho.

In 2007, the High Court held that the failure to allow the applicant, a transgender woman who had undergone gender-affirming surgery, to obtain a new birth certificate recording her gender as female violated her rights under Article 8 and 12 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which had been made part of Irish law, despite having found in previous proceedings involving the same applicant that her constitutional right to privacy was not disproportionately or excessively infringed. The Court agreed with the applicant that existing Irish law barred the effective recognition of her Article 8 and 12 rights in Ireland as they rendered her without the power to correct or vary the original entry on her birth certificate. The High Court considered the European Court of Human Right’s 2002 decisions in Goodwin v. United Kingdom and I. v. United Kingdom, in which the Court held that the State’s failure to have a system of law in place affording proper respect for a trans person’s Convention rights violated Articles 8 and 12 of the Convention.

The applicant, a translator for the Romanian Embassy, was terminated without explanation the day after officially informing the employer of her pregnancy. She argued that her dismissal was based on gender discrimination, while the employer stated that it was because of unsatisfactory results during the contractual probationary period. The Court ruled in favor of the applicant awarding LT 50,000 in pecuniary and LT 10,000 in non-pecuniary damages to be paid by the Romanian Embassy in the Republic of Lithuania.

Pareiškėja, vertėja Rumunijos ambasadoje, buvo atleista iš darbo be paaiškinimo dieną po to, kai oficialiai informavo darbdavį apie savo nėštumą. Ji grindė šį atleidimą diskriminacija dėl lyties, bet darbdavys nurodė, kad priežastis buvo nepatenkinami rezultatai bandomuoju sutarties laikotarpiu. Teismas priėmė sprendimą ieškovės naudai priteisdamas 50 000 LT turtinės žalos ir 10 000 LT neturtinės žalos, kurią turi sumokėti Rumunijos ambasada Lietuvos Respublikoje.

Amongst other things, this case sets out that the constitutional concept of family is not only derived from the institution of marriage. According to the Court, a family formed on the basis of “continuous emotional affection, mutual understanding, responsibility, respect, co-parenting, and the like” is also protected by the Constitution. The significance of such family definition for same-sex partners was proven years later by the Constitutional Court case No. 16/2016. The Court affirmed that the State must not discriminate based on gender and/or sexual orientation in granting Residence Permits to foreign nationals reuniting with their spouses, even if same-sex marriage or same-sex partnership is not legal in Lithuania.

Šioje byloje nustatyta, kad konstitucinė šeimos samprata kyla ne tik iš santuokos institucijos. Pasak Teismo, šeima, sudaryta remiantis „pastoviais emocinio prieraišumo, tarpusavio supratimo, atsakomybės, pagarbos, bendro vaikų auklėjimo ir panašiais ryšiais“ taip pat yra saugoma Konstitucijos. Tokio šeimos apibrėžimo reikšmė tos pačios lyties partneriams po daugelio metų įrodyta byloje Nr. 16/2016, kurioje Konstitucinis Teismas patvirtino, kad valstybė negali diskriminuoti dėl lyties ir (ar) seksualinės orientacijos, suteikdama užsieniečiui sutuoktiniui leidimą laikinai gyventi Lietuvos Respublikoje šeimos susijungimo atveju, net jei tos pačios lyties asmenų santuokos ar partnerystė Lietuvoje nėra teisėta.

The local court denied the petitioner’s motion to certify the approval of her female partner to conduct in vitro fertilization with a third person’s semen. The regional court denied the appeal. It held that the wording of the Austrian Reproductive Medicine Act (FMedG) aims to exclude same-sex parenthood. The Supreme Court decided to bring this question to the attention of the Austrian Constitutional Court. The Austrian Constitutional Court decided that certain sections of the FMedG were unconstitutional. Referencing the European Court of Human Right’s judgements, the Court stressed that same-sex partnerships can fall under the protection of Article 8 of the EHRC as a family. Even though the legislature has discretion in the implementation of new rules, the FMedG is missing sufficient grounds for a differential treatment of same sex couples and heterosexual couples. The impact of this decision was far-reaching because it made it immediately permissible for lesbian couples to receive sperm donations and reproductive medication. Before this decision, these medical treatments were solely available to heterosexual couples.

Das Amtsgericht lehnte den Antrag der Antragsstellerin ab, die Zustimmung ihres weiblichen Partners zur Durchführung einer In-vitro-Fertilisation mit dem Samen einer dritten Person zu bescheinigen. Das Landgericht wies die Berufung zurück. Es vertrat die Auffassung, dass der Wortlaut des österreichischen Fortpflanzungsmedizingesetzes (FMedG) darauf abziele, gleichgeschlechtliche Elternschaft auszuschließen. Der Oberste Gerichtshof beschloss, den österreichischen Verfassungsgerichtshof mit dieser Frage zu befassen. Der österreichische Verfassungsgerichtshof entschied, dass bestimmte Abschnitte des FMedG verfassungswidrig sind. Unter Verweis auf die Urteile des Europäischen Gerichtshofs für Menschenrechte betonte das Gericht, dass gleichgeschlechtliche Partnerschaften als Familie unter den Schutz von Artikel 8 der EMRK fallen können. Auch wenn der Gesetzgeber bei der Umsetzung neuer Regelungen einen Ermessensspielraum hat, fehlt es dem FMedG an einer ausreichenden Begründung für eine unterschiedliche Behandlung von gleichgeschlechtlichen und heterosexuellen Paaren. Die Auswirkungen dieser Entscheidung waren weitreichend, da sie es lesbischen Paaren sofort erlaubte, Samenspenden und reproduktionsmedizinische Behandlungen in Anspruch zu nehmen. Vor dieser Entscheidung waren diese medizinischen Behandlungen ausschließlich heterosexuellen Paaren vorbehalten.

The appellant, a Somali girl, applied to the Austrian government for asylum and international protection due to her precarious situation in Yemen. The appellant’s family fled to Yemen when she was four years old because her family was discriminated against in Somalia due to their affiliation with a Madhibaan minority clan. The plaintiff’s brother and father were killed and no other family remained in Somalia. Further, female genital mutilation is a common practice in Somalia. The appellant’s application for asylum and international protection was rejected by the relevant asylum authorities and the Austrian Federal Administrative Court on the grounds that the nature of the persecution was found to be insufficiently intense or severe. It was further decided that the appellant’s genital mutilation had already happened , so the international protection against threatened genital mutilation could not apply. However, the Austrian Constitutional Court ultimately revoked this judgment, finding (among other conclusions) that the circumstances of this case were not given sufficient consideration, in particular, the disregard of the fact that women of minority clans in the relevant geographic areas were particularly vulnerable to risks of torture, rape, murder, and forced marriages. The lower court also failed to consider sufficiently the possibility of repeated genital mutilation. Finally, the Court referred to UNHCR’s finding that prior genital mutilation was an equally reasonable justification for the application for asylum and international protection because the victim suffered life-long physical and mental damages.

Die Beschwerdeführerin, ein somalisches Mädchen, beantragte bei der österreichischen Regierung Asyl und internationalen Schutz aufgrund ihrer prekären Situation im Jemen. Die Familie der Klägerin floh in den Jemen, als sie vier Jahre alt war, weil ihre Familie in Somalia aufgrund ihrer Zugehörigkeit zu einem Clan der Madhibaan-Minderheit diskriminiert wurde. Der Bruder und der Vater der Klägerin wurden getötet, und keine andere Familie blieb in Somalia. Außerdem ist die weibliche Genitalverstümmelung in Somalia eine gängige Praxis. Der Antrag der Klägerin auf Asyl und internationalen Schutz wurde von den zuständigen Asylbehörden und dem österreichischen Bundesverwaltungsgericht mit der Begründung abgelehnt, dass die Art der Verfolgung nicht ausreichend intensiv oder schwer sei. Außerdem wurde festgestellt, dass die Genitalverstümmelung der Beschwerdeführerin bereits stattgefunden hatte, so dass der internationale Schutz gegen drohende Genitalverstümmelung nicht zur Anwendung kommen konnte. Der österreichische Verfassungsgerichtshof hob dieses Urteil jedoch schließlich auf, da er (neben anderen Schlussfolgerungen) feststellte, dass die Umstände dieses Falles nicht ausreichend berücksichtigt wurden, insbesondere die Tatsache, dass Frauen von Minderheitenclans in den betreffenden geografischen Gebieten besonders gefährdet sind, gefoltert, vergewaltigt, ermordet und zwangsverheiratet werden. Die Vorinstanz hat auch die Möglichkeit wiederholter Genitalverstümmelung nicht ausreichend berücksichtigt. Schließlich verwies das Gericht auf die Feststellung des UNHCR, dass eine frühere Genitalverstümmelung eine ebenso angemessene Begründung für den Antrag auf Asyl und internationalen Schutz sei, da das Opfer lebenslange körperliche und seelische Schäden erleidet.

The appellant pleaded guilty to raping and impregnating a 12-year-old girl for which he was originally sentenced to 12 years imprisonment with hard labor. On appeal, the appellant argued that his sentence was excessive in light of mitigating factors. While recognizing the victim’s age and pregnancy as aggravating factors, the appeals court reduced his sentence to nine years imprisonment. The court articulated several rules regarding mitigation in favor of this outcome based on the citation of cases from the appellant. First, the court stated that guilty pleas should reduce a sentence by one-third, even in the case of serious crimes. Second, citing in Rep v. Bamusi Mkwapatira, the court stated that all first-time offenders, regardless of the severity of the offense, should benefit from mitigation. Finally, the court identified the appellant, who was 33 years old at the time of the offense, as “youthful,” asserting that “men especially grow slowly mentally and at 35 they are at their prime experimenting with life.” Cautioning against mitigating too significantly, however, the court explicitly recognized the victim’s pregnancy, which “disturbed [her] life […] physically and psychologically,” and her very young age as aggravating factors. Thus, the court reduced the sentence by one-quarter, resulting in a nine-year sentence, rather than one-third or more.

Article 1002 of the Civil Code in 1998 stipulated," The residence of the wife shall be that of the husband…; nevertheless, in case there is an agreement that the residence of the husband shall be that of the wife…, the agreement shall be upheld." This article was against the principle of equality and proportionality of the Constitution. Though the article allows the husband or wife to make an agreement about their residence, it failed to take into consideration that if a husband refuses to make such an agreement with his wife or if an agreement cannot be made, the wife has no choice but to accept her husband's domicile as hers. This article also failed to consider the wife's freedom to choose her residence; thus, it is unconstitutional.

1998年民法第1002條規定：「妻以夫之住所為住所…，但約定夫以妻之住所為住所…，從其約定。」此一規定因違反平等原則及比例原則而違憲。雖該條賦予夫妻一方得另行約定住所，但如夫拒絕為約定或雙方協議不成時，妻即須以夫之住所為住所。該條規定亦未考慮妻應有選擇住所之自由，故而違憲。

The Constitutional Court reviewed the constitutionality of the law “on Amendments and Additions to the Code of the Republic of Belarus on Marriage and Family” dated 2011. The Court noted that the Constitution protects marriage, family, motherhood, fatherhood, and childhood. It further noted that the protection and strengthening of the family institution is an integral part of the State’s social policy and held that amendments to the Code are aimed at protecting the family. The Court further noted that the Constitutional guarantee on the equality of both spouses means equal rights and obligations, including the obligation, financially, to support the other spouse. This constitutional guarantee is implemented by the amendments to the Code as it expands the list of circumstances when one spouse can apply to a court for maintenance, including when that spouse is caring for a disabled common child. The Court also held that amendments to the Code establishing that certain contracts between the spouses, such as a prenuptial agreement and agreement on payment of alimony if they contain conditions regarding immovable property, have to be registered with the appropriate State organs, are aimed at ensuring legal certainty and consistency of legal regulation of marriage and family relationships. The Court held that the law “on Amendments and Additions to the Code of the Republic of Belarus on Marriage and Family” dated 2011 was constitutional as it was aimed at strengthening marriage and family institutions, and increasing the spouses’ awareness of their rights and responsibilities.

In 2004, the Brazilian Federal Supreme Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal or “STF”) considered a claim brought by the National Trade Union of Health Workers and ANIS (Institute of Bioethics, Human Rights, and Gender) to determine whether terminating a pregnancy in which the fetus suffers from anencephaly (absence of major portion of the brain, skull, and scalp) violates the prohibition on abortion as set forth in Brazil’s Penal Code. On April 12, 2012, the STF rendered an 8-2 decision (with one abstention) that abortion in the circumstance of anencephaly is not a criminal act under the Penal Code. The majority extended a woman’s right to terminate her pregnancy to cases of anencephalic fetuses because the fetus does not have the potential for a viable life outside of the womb, and to force a woman to carry such a pregnancy to term is akin to torture. Justice Marco Aurelio and the majority held that to interpret the Penal Code to prohibit such abortions would violate a woman’s constitutional guarantees of human dignity, autonomy, privacy, and the right to health. A woman therefore may seek and receive treatment to terminate the anencephalic pregnancy without risk of criminal prosecution and without judicial involvement.

Em 2004, a Supremo Tribunal Federal – STF, quando da análise do Arguição de Descumprimento de Preceito Fundamental 54 formalizada pela Confederação Nacional dos Trabalhadores na Saúde – CNTS, determinou que a interrupção da gravidez de feto anencefálico não viola as proibições de realização de aborto trazidas no Código Penal. Em abri de 2012, o Pleno do STF entendeu, por 8-2 votos (com uma abstenção), pela descriminalização do aborto realizado em razão da anencefalia do feto. A maioria estendeu o direito da mulher de interromper sua gravidez a casos de fetos anencefálicos porque o feto não tem potencial para uma vida viável fora do útero, e forçar uma mulher a levar tal gravidez adiante é semelhante a tortura. O Juiz Marco Aurélio e a maioria dos juízes sustentou que interpretar o Código Penal para proibir tais abortos violaria as garantias constitucionais de dignidade humana, autonomia, privacidade e o direito à saúde da mulher. Assim, a mulher poderá procurar e receber tratamento para interromper a gravidez anencefálica sem risco de processo criminal e sem envolvimento judicial.

Two female members of a certain local community which have collective property rights to a common land (called a "common" or a "hamlet") petitioned the court to decide the unconstitutionality of a traditional practice which determined membership and property rights within the community. The court held that this custom which excludes female descendants who married outside of the community, is "contrary to public order and therefore null and void" under Article 90 of the Civil Code. The court held that "the male descendant requirement discriminates against female descendants only because they are females" and it is unreasonable and against the constitutional principle of "essential gender equality."

上告人らは、本件で問題となっている入会地について入会権を有していた者の女性直系卑属であった。本件は、上告人らが、本件における習慣のうち入会権者の資格を男性直系卑属に限ることが公序良俗に反して無効であるなどと主張した事案である。最高裁は、男性直系卑属要件は、民法第90条の下「公序良俗に反しており、したがって無効である」と判断した。 裁判所は、男の男性直系卑属要件は、専ら女子であることのみを理由として女子を男子と差別したものというべきであり、性別のみによる不合理な差別とし、男女の本質的な平等という日本国憲法上の基本的原則に反するとした。

The plaintiff was a physiotherapist in a managerial position at her employer. She requested and was granted maternity leave but was not allowed to return to her position at the end of the maternity leave. She filed a lawsuit against her employer, asserting that there was a violation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law. The Supreme Court found in favor of the plaintiff because the Equal Employment Opportunity Law forbids disadvantaging employees based on the employee’s pregnancy, childbirth, request for maternity leave, or request for transfer to lighter work.

原告は、管理職にあった理学療法士で、育児休業の終了後、元の職に戻れなかったことから、被告の雇用主に対して、男女雇用機会均等法違反に基づいて損害賠償を求めた。最高裁は、男女雇用機会均等法は、妊娠・出産・産前産後休暇の申請・軽易な業務への転換の申請などを理由に従業員に不利益な扱いを禁じていることを理由に、原告を支持した。

In Slovakia, a petition signed by at least 350,000 voters may initiate a referendum as long as the questions relate to public interest. However, the subject of the referendum may not be basic rights and freedoms. The Constitutional Court reviews whether the subject of the referendum conforms to the Constitution. In 2014, 408,000 voters signed a petition asking the President to announce a referendum on the following questions: 1) Do you agree that the term “marriage” may not be used to designate any other form of cohabitation of persons other than the union between one man and one woman?; 2) Do you agree that pairs or groups of persons of the same sex may not be allowed to adopt children and subsequently to bring them up?; 3) Do you agree that no other form of cohabitation of persons other than marriage should be accorded the special protection, rights and obligations which are accorded solely to marriage and spouses by the legal system as at 1 March 2014?; and 4) Do you agree that schools may not require children to attend lessons in the field of sexual behavior or euthanasia, if their parents and the children themselves do not agree with the teaching content? The President asked the court to consider whether the first, second, and third questions were admissible as they related to the right to privacy, and whether the last question was admissible as it might interfere with the right to education. The Constitutional Court balanced the inalterability of constitutional provisions guaranteeing fundamental rights and freedoms with the impossibility of rejecting every question which might minimally affect a right or freedom. The court held that the irrevocability of human rights means the standard of human rights is as set in the constitutional text. Any referendum questions that would lead to a broadening of human rights would be constitutionally acceptable, and any that would reduce human rights would not be constitutionally acceptable. Thus, the first, second, and fourth question were declared acceptable, and the third unacceptable. This case is available through the search function on the Constitutional Court of the Slovak Republic website here by searching for the case file number (PL. ÚS 24/2014).

The Taiwan Constitutional Court held in this interpretation that the provisions of the Taiwan Civil Code on marriage and family, which did not contemplate same-sex marriage, violated the guarantees of freedom of marriage and right to equality under Articles 22 and 7, respectively, of the Taiwan Constitution. The case involved consolidated appeals by (i) the Taipei City Government, arguing that the relevant Civil Code provisions and a related directive of the Ministry of the Interior required it to deny registration for same-sex marriages in violation of the Constitution and (ii) an individual seeking a constitutional interpretation after exhausting other judicial remedies for the denial of his applications for a same-sex marriage. The Court concluded that an individual’s “decisional autonomy” as to whether and whom to marry is a fundamental right protected by Article 22 of the Constitution and that extending this right to same-sex couples would not affect the application of the Civil Code provisions on betrothal, conclusion of marriage, general effects of marriage, marital property regimes, and divorce with regard to opposite sex couples and also would not undermine or alter the social order. The Court also concluded that the classifications of impermissible discrimination under Article 7 of the Constitution are only illustrative rather than exhaustive and that different treatment based on other classifications, such as disability or sexual orientation, are also governed by the constitutional right to equality. The Court applied a heightened standard under Article 7, and concluded that the societal interest in procreation was not an essential element of marriage and that the “basic ethical orders” relating to traditional marriage (e.g., minimum age, monogamy, prohibition of marriage between close relatives, obligation of fidelity, and mutual obligation) would not be affected by legal recognition of same-sex marriages. The Court further stated that leaving the determination of the issue of same-sex marriage to the legislative process would indefinitely prolong the unfair treatment and ordered the legislative authorities to amend or enact laws to reflect this interpretation within two years. The Act for Implementation of J.Y. Interpretation 748 was enacted in 2019 to enforce this Interpretation.

台灣憲法法庭認為台灣民法親屬篇中未考量納入同性婚姻，有違反台灣憲法第22條及第7條之婚姻自由及平等權之保障。本案為共同聲請案件，聲請人之一臺北市政府為戶籍登記業務主管機關（戶籍法第22條參照），因所轄戶政事務所於辦理相同性別二人民申請之結婚登記業務，適用民法第4編親屬第2章婚姻（下稱婚姻章）規定及內政部函示，函轉法務部函，發生有牴觸憲法第7條、第22條及第23條規定之疑義，經由上級機關內政部層轉行政院，再由行政院轉請本院解釋。另一聲請人於窮盡司法途徑後，向憲法法庭聲請解釋。憲法法庭認為是否結婚及與誰接婚，皆屬個人憲法第22條所保障之自由意志，且該權利亦為同性伴侶所適用。現行婚姻章有關異性婚姻制度之當事人身分及相關權利、義務關係，不因本解釋而改變。憲法法庭也指出，憲法第7條規定：「中華民國人民，無分男女、宗教、種族、階級、黨派，在法律上一律平等。」本條明文揭示之5種禁止歧視事由，僅係例示，而非窮盡列舉。是如以其他事由，如身心障礙、性傾向等為分類標準，所為之差別待遇，亦屬本條平等權規範之範圍。是以性傾向作為分類標準所為之差別待遇，應適用較為嚴格之審查標準，以判斷其合憲性，除其目的須為追求重要公共利益外，其手段與目的之達成間並須具有實質關聯，始符合憲法第7條保障平等權之意旨。故以不能繁衍後代為由，未使相同性別二人得以結婚，顯非合理之差別待遇。倘以婚姻係為維護基本倫理秩序，如結婚年齡、單一配偶、近親禁婚、忠貞義務及扶養義務等為考量，其計慮固屬正當。惟若容許相同性別二人得依婚姻章實質與形式要件規定，成立法律上婚姻關係，且要求其亦應遵守婚姻關係存續中及終止後之雙方權利義務規定，並不影響現行異性婚姻制度所建構之基本倫理秩序。有關機關應於本解釋公布之日起2年內，依本解釋意旨完成相關法律之修正或制定。至於以何種形式達成婚姻自由之平等保護，屬立法形成之範圍。逾期未完成相關法律之修正或制定者，相同性別二人為成立上開永久結合關係，得依上開婚姻章規定，持二人以上證人簽名之書面，向戶政機關辦理結婚登記。

The plaintiffs were two female criminal defendants who chose to be tried by a jury and objected to the Juries Act of 1927, which excluded all women from jury pools except those who opted to be part of the potential jurors list. The Supreme Court ruled the Juries Act unconstitutional because it constituted invidious discrimination on the basis of sex.

In this case, the Constitutional Court held that §7(1) of the Recognition of Customary Marriages Act 120 of 1998 (RMCA) was inconsistent with 172(2) of the Constitution, and therefore invalid, because it unfairly discriminated against women in polygamous customary marriages entered into before the enactment of the RMCA on the bases of gender and race, ethnic, or social origin. This case followed Gumede v. President of the Republic of South Africa, in which it was held that §7(1) was invalid as to monogamous customary marriages, but left the question of polygamous customary marriages for Parliament. The effect of this ruling was that pre-RCMA marriages continued to be governed by customary law, while post-RCMA marriages were automatically out of community of property. The Court declared that, in the interim until Parliament changes the RCMA, a husband and his wives in pre-RCMA polygamous customary marriages must share equally in the right of ownership of, and other rights attaching to, family property, including the right of management and control of family property.

In this case, the Constitutional Court declared §2(1) of the Upgrading of Land Tenure Rights Act (Upgrading Act) unconstitutional. §2(1) of the Upgrading Act automatically turned land tenure rights into rights of property ownership, without providing other occupants or affected parties an opportunity to make submissions. The Court held §2(1) unconstitutional because it had a discriminatory effect on women’s property rights. During apartheid, only men could be the head of the family and hold Certificates of Deed and Grant. This had the effect of excluding women from holding land tenure rights. The Court determined that because §2(1) of the Upgrading Act was based on this apartheid position, it indirectly differentiated between men and women in a way that amounted to gender discrimination.

The plaintiff, a councilwoman in the Comune of Lampa, identified as a woman and presented herself to society as a woman, filed a discrimination complaint against the defendant, claiming arbitrary discrimination for failure by the Mayor, as representative of the State, to respect her gender identity. She sued, claiming a violation of Anti-Discrimination Law No. 20.069 (“the Law”). The court, on appeal, reversed the trial court judgment and imposed a fine, finding that the Mayor of the Comune of Lampa had arbitrarily discriminated against plaintiff by failing to respect her gender identity as a woman. The court held that arbitrary discrimination means any distinction, exclusion, or restriction made by agents of the State or individuals that lacks reasonable justification, and that causes deprivation, disturbance, or threat in the legitimate exercise of the fundamental rights established in the Constitution or international treaties on human rights ratified by Chile and in effect, including gender identity as defined by the LGBTI Unit of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, which includes transgender identity. Therefore, the right to an identity is constitutionally protected, including the right to identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersexual. Any deprivation, disturbance or threat to such identifying rights constitutes an arbitrary discrimination within the meaning of Article 2 of Law No. 20,609.

La demandante, vecina de la comunidad de Lampa, identificada como mujer y presentada a la sociedad como mujer, interpuso una denuncia de discriminación contra la imputada, alegando discriminación arbitraria por incumplimiento del Alcalde, como representante del Estado, de respetar su identidad de género. Ella demandó, alegando una violación de la Ley contra la Discriminación No. 20.069 (“la Ley”). El tribunal, en apelación, revocó la sentencia del tribunal de primera instancia e impuso una multa, al considerar que el alcalde de la comuna de Lampa había discriminado arbitrariamente a la demandante al no respetar su identidad de género como mujer. El tribunal sostuvo que “discriminación arbitraria” significa toda distinción, exclusión o restricción realizada por agentes del Estado o personas que carece de justificación razonable, y que ocasiona privación, alteración o amenaza en el legítimo ejercicio de los derechos fundamentales consagrados en la Constitución o en las normas internacionales, tratados de derechos humanos ratificados por Chile y en vigencia, incluida la identidad de género según la definición de la Unidad LGBTI de la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, que incluye la identidad transgénero. Por lo tanto, el derecho a la identidad está protegido constitucionalmente, incluido el derecho a identificarse como lesbiana, gay, bisexual, transgénero e intersexual. Cualquier privación, alteración o amenaza a tales derechos identificativos constituye una discriminación arbitraria en el sentido del artículo 2 de la Ley N ° 20.609.

The complainant applied for membership of the Yukon Order of Pioneers and was rejected on the ground that she was female. According to its constitution, the Order is dedicated to, among other things, the advancement of the Yukon territory, the mutual protection of its members and the collection and the preservation of literature and incidents of Yukon’s history. The historical materials and details of members are made available to the public, which is the only public-service related activity of the organization. The Board of Adjudication, constituted by the Yukon Human Rights Commission, concluded that the Order was offering or providing services to the public and concluded that the discrimination was prohibited under section 8 of the Yukon Human Rights Act. The Yukon Supreme Court set aside that decision and concluded that the complainant’s exclusion did not amount to discrimination and the Yukon Court of Appeal agreed. The Supreme Court, with two dissenters, also found in favour of the Order of Pioneers, stating that section 8 prohibits discrimination in membership of certain types of organizations that provide public services and that the Order did not provide public services.

The respondent’s group insurance plan provided weekly benefits for loss of pay due to accident or sickness. The plan covered pregnant women subject to an exclusion from coverage during the period commencing on the tenth week prior to the expected week of childbirth and extending to six weeks after it (even if the accident or sickness was unrelated to the pregnancy). The appellants, who all became pregnant in 1982, alleged that the differential treatment of pregnancy in the respondent’s plan constituted discrimination on the basis of sex contrary to s.6(1) of the Human Rights Act of Manitoba. The Supreme Court ruled that pregnancy discrimination is a form of sex discrimination and that the respondent had discriminated against the appellants on the basis of sex. It said that bearing children benefits society as a whole and women should not be economically or socially disadvantaged due to childbearing.

Here, the Employment Appeal Tribunal upheld the appeal of the respondent employer and rejected a prior holding of the Edinburgh Employment Tribunal that found the respondent employer liable for having violated Section 1(3) of the Equal Pay Act for having given a male staff member a more favorable employment contract than two female co-workers and having done so without genuine, material, and sex-neutral factors accounting for this disparity. The claimants in this appeal were two female employees of Scottish Enterprise, a non-departmental public body of the Scottish Government focused on economic development. The women alleged that a male co-worker doing work of equal value had a more favorable employment contract, and that there were no genuine, material, and sex-neutral factors accounting for this disparity. The Employment Appeal Tribunal accepted respondent’s argument that the reason for the disparity in compensation between the claimants’ contracts and that of their male comparator was due to the fact that the terms of the male comparator’s contract were protected under Scotland’s Transfer of Undertakings (TUPE) regulations. These regulations protect an employee’s contract from modification in the case of a business transfer. While the lower tribunal had accepted that this explanation for the disparity was genuine, it held that the respondent should have frozen the male comparator’s salary and not granted him pay increases after a certain period to keep his pay equal to that of the claimants. The Employment Appeal Tribunal rejected this holding and granted the appeal, noting that it was not the respondent’s practice to freeze salaries for any employees. Furthermore, the Employment Appeal Tribunal stated that the lower tribunal had made “no finding that the Claimants suffered discrimination on grounds of sex.” Neither had it made any finding that respondent committed any form of “culpable inactivity” motivated by sex. Finally, the Employment Appeal Tribunal found that the respondent established a valid defense under the Equal Pay Act. The Equal Pay Act states that an employer must show that “that the difference in pay or other conditions is explained by something that has nothing to do with sex.” The Employment Appeal Tribunal found that the respondent made a “causal link between a non gender related explanation and the difference in pay complained of,” and that, therefore, respondent had established a defense. Therefore, it rejected the decision of the Edinburgh Employment Tribunal, upheld the appeal, and dismissed the claims.

The students enrolled at Castlemaine Steiner School Ltd (“Castlemaine”) for kindergarten and prep were originally approximately 75% boys and 25% girls. Castlemaine wished to offer more places to female students in order to maintain gender balance in their classes. Such conduct would constitute discrimination on the basis of gender in the provision of education and services under the Equal Opportunity Act 2010 (Vic) (“EO Act”), unless an exemption applies. Castlemaine sought an exemption under section 89 of the EO Act, contending that an exemption would enable it to promote social cohesion and gender balance, and would provide boys and girls opportunities to be with a meaningful number of children of their own gender. In assessing the application, the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (“VCAT”) noted that they were required to interpret the law, so far as it is possible to do so, compatibly with section 32(1) of the Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic). In addition, VCAT was required to consider whether the interests served by the exemption are sufficient to justify taking the relevant conduct out of the prohibitions of the EO Act. Ultimately, VCAT granted the exemption for the maximum period of five years, on the basis that the proposed exemption offered a reasonable chance of to achieving gender balance.

The Swedish Equality Ombudsman ruled that separate opening hours in public swimming pools for women and men can constitute discrimination, but that separate opening hours can be legal if the discrimination is a result of achieving a permissible and legal purpose. As such, it is permissible for a public swimming pool to have female-only hours in the event that the group of women using the swimming pool do not bathe with men due to their religious beliefs, and would not be able to learn how to swim otherwise. In the decisions, the Swedish Equality Ombudsman stressed that such permissible discrimination justifications are exceedingly rare, and that the ground rule is that public swimming pools should be open to both women and men at all times.

A Swedish dental student was during her dental clinic required to work with bare under-arms. Due to the student’s religious convictions, she asked for permission to wear disposable underarm protection, but her request was denied. The student filed a complaint with the Swedish Equality Ombudsman, who decided to bring an anti-discrimination case to civil court against the education provider Karolinska Institutet. Both parties agreed that working with bare underarms constituted a higher burden on Muslim women, and the case came down to conflicting expert testimony regarding how sanitary the arm covers were in practice. The court found that the education provider had the burden of proof to provide objective justification for an indirect discrimination and that both experts provided equally strong arguments. Therefore, the court ruled in favor of the student. The student was awarded SEK 5000 as compensatory damages.

A Muslim woman refused to shake a male interviewer’s hand for religious reasons during a job interview. She placed her hand over her heart and explained her reasons. The recruitment process was then canceled, as the company had a policy which required employees to shake hands with both men and women. The Swedish Equality Ombudsman claimed that the cancellation was an indirect discrimination of Muslims who refuse to shake hand with a person of an opposite sex. The Swedish Labor Court first established that the right to refuse a handshake on religious grounds is protected by the European Convention on Human Rights. The court further found that the handshake policy was neither appropriate nor necessary to achieve its justified purpose (promoting gender equality at the workplace). The court ordered the company to pay the woman SEK 40,000 in damages.

The applicant was a judge on the Court of Appeals and was a candidate in the election for the President of the Court of Appeals. She received the highest number of points among the three candidates in the candidate evaluation commissioned by the Kosovo Judicial Council (KJC, the body which administers the judiciary). During the voting by the KJC, the applicant was voted on first, but did not receive the necessary majority of votes. The voting then moved on to the second-ranked candidate, who won the overwhelming share of votes and was elected. Upon losing, the applicant submitted a referral to the Constitutional Court, alleging various constitutional violations, including violation of the principle of gender equality under Article 24 (Equality before the Law) of the Constitution of Kosovo. The KJC responded that the principle of gender equality consisted of equal treatment of every candidate using the same standards, and that it had done so irrespective of the candidates’ gender or ethnic background. The Constitutional Court noted that Article 24 of the Constitution implies that general principles of equality of treatment apply to all actions of public authorities in their dealings with individuals. The tribunal explained that in a voting process, a fundamental aspect of the principle of equality is that each candidate shall benefit from the opportunity to be considered fairly and equally. The panel then held that the KJC’s vote did not provide equal opportunities to the candidates, because it did not provide for procedural safeguards pertinent to the guarantee of equality of treatment. Each candidate was voted on in succession, and so KJC members could vote in favor or against all three candidates. Members could also abstain from the voting selectively and arbitrarily. Thus, it was impossible to know which candidate actually had the support of the majority of the KJC. The court therefore declared the vote incompatible with the Constitution, and ordered the KJC to conduct a new vote. (Also available in Srpski and English.)

The applicant, President of the Assembly of the Republic of Kosovo, referred to the Constitutional Court an amendment to the Constitution proposed by numerous deputies, and requested the court to make a prior assessment whether the proposed amendment diminishes any rights or freedoms under the Constitution. The amendment stipulates that no gender can be represented less than 40% in the positions of ministers and deputy ministers in the government. The proponents argued that a gender quota was needed because women represented no more than 10-15% in ministerial positions and the Law on Gender Equality had not been implemented. The Constitutional Court noted that the principle of gender equality was already included in many provisions of the Constitution and held that the introduction of gender-based quota to ministerial and deputy ministerial positions narrows the applicability of the constitutional safeguards for gender equality and diminishes the rights to gender-balanced participation in public bodies. The court further expressed concern that the proposed amendment may diminish the rights of deputies or qualified persons – from whom ministers are nominated – to become part of the government, and cited case law from the European Court of Justice and the French Constitutional Council against gender quota in government positions. In the court’s opinion, the principle of equal opportunity for both women and men should be applied instead, and positive discrimination whereby preference is automatically and unconditionally granted to a gender, notwithstanding the requirement of professional merit, is not supported by constitutional practice. The court also observed that the proponents of the amendment have not submitted any supporting evidence showing that the current constitutional safeguards of gender equality are insufficient. The implementation of the Law on Gender Equality is the responsibility of the government, controlled by the Assembly. For these reasons, the Constitutional Court concluded that the proposed amendment diminished constitutional rights and was therefore unconstitutional. (Also available in Srpski and English.)

The Court held that it was unconstitutional to require an attorney without earnings to continue to make compulsory pension contributions during time taken off to care for children (up to the age of three years). The Court found that requiring such compulsory pension contributions was a breach of the right to equal treatment enshrined in the German constitution because it disproportionately affected women, who are the parent taking time off to care for small children in the vast majority of cases.

Der Gerichtshof hielt es für verfassungswidrig, dass eine Rechtsanwaltskammer von einer Rechtsanwältin weiterhin Pflichtbeiträge zur Rentenversicherung verlangt, obwohl die Rechtsanwältin während der Freistellung zur Kinderbetreuung (bis zum Alter von drei Jahren) kein Einkommen hat. Eine solche Beitragspflicht wurde als Verstoß gegen das im Grundgesetz verankerte Gleichbehandlungsgebot angesehen, da sie Frauen, die in der überwiegenden Zahl der Fälle derjenige Elternteil sind, der eine Auszeit zur Betreuung von Kleinkindern nimmt, unverhältnismäßig stark belastet.

The Court rejected the appeal and upheld the decision of the lower court that a female Muslim high school student was not exempt from compulsory swimming lessons on the grounds of her religion. In the circumstances, there was not sufficient reason to undermine compulsory school attendance of children. The girl's parents had applied to the school for an exemption from swimming lessons on the grounds that Islamic dress custom did not allow their daughter to participate in co-educational swimming lessons. The school had rejected the application but permitted the girl to wear swimwear in accordance with Islamic custom (a burkini).

Das Gericht wies die Revision zurück und bestätigte die Entscheidung der Vorinstanz, dass eine muslimische Schülerin nicht aufgrund ihrer Religion vom obligatorischen Schwimmunterricht befreit werden kann. Unter den gegebenen Umständen gab es keinen ausreichenden Grund, die Schulpflicht von Kindern zu umgehen. Die Eltern des Mädchens hatten bei der Schule eine Befreiung vom Schwimmunterricht mit der Begründung beantragt, dass die islamischen Bekleidungsvorschriften ihrer Tochter die Teilnahme am koedukativen Schwimmunterricht nicht erlaube. Die Schule lehnte den Antrag ab, erlaubte dem Mädchen jedoch, eine dem islamischen Brauch entsprechende Badekleidung (einen Burkini) zu tragen.

The plaintiff, a British national, applied for a Hong Kong visa as a dependent of her same-sex partner, who was in Hong Kong on a work visa. The plaintiff and her partner had entered into a civil partnership in England. The Director of Immigration rejected the plaintiff’s application on the grounds that the term “spouse” in the spousal dependent visa policy was limited to the concept of marriage as defined under Hong Kong law, recognizing only the union of a man and a woman. The court found that the director acted unlawfully by not granting dependent visas to the same-sex spouses of holders of work visas. It did not, however, hold that Hong Kong law recognized same-sex marriage.

The plaintiffs were non-indigenous villagers who sought declarations that their local village election laws were unlawful for restricting the participation of non-indigenous villagers in the election of village representatives. According to the plaintiff’s complaint, non-indigenous females married to indigenous villagers could vote, but non-indigenous males married to indigenous villagers could not vote. The court found that this distinction violated the Sex Discrimination Ordinance.

The plaintiff was the defendant’s employee. The plaintiff alleged that the defendant’s management began treating her poorly after her pregnancy, culminating in her eventual dismissal. The plaintiff claimed that the defendant’s actions were prohibited by the Sex Discrimination Ordinance. The court found that management had, among other things, had made derogatory remarks to the plaintiff, reduced her income, compelled her to transfer teams, and failed to investigate her internal complaints about her treatment. The court further found that the plaintiff had showed that, on a balance of probabilities, she had been discriminated against by the defendant’s management on the basis of her pregnancy.

The plaintiff was a former employee of the defendant. She alleged that the defendant had unlawfully discriminated against her because of her gender. Following poor performance reviews, the plaintiff had been fired by the defendant. She pointed to disparate treatment of her versus a male colleague, who despite having had multiple complaints made against him (while there were none against her) had received better performance reviews than the plaintiff. The court denied the plaintiff’s claims, relying in part on nine allegations of substandard performance that had been made against her.

The applicants were female soldiers who were discharged from the army by the Commander of the Lesotho Defence Force on the grounds of pregnancy. The reason listed for the discharge of the applicants was pregnancy and a contravention of the army’s Standing Order No. 2 of 2014, which states that a soldier may not become pregnant during the first five years of service. The High Court stated that case before it was a “challenge to the culture of patriarchy in the military and an assertion of sexual and reproductive rights in military service. What is being contested is the idea that female soldiers are incapable to bear arms and babies at the same time and, on that account, are not fit for military purpose.” The court stated that to allow the dismissal from work on the grounds of pregnancy would amount to discrimination on the basis of sex because pregnancy affects only women. The Standing Order had profound effects on the reproductive rights, freedoms, and careers of female soldiers, and the five-year prohibition period was arbitrary in nature. The court held that the applicants must be reinstated back to their positions and ranks in the Lesotho Defence Force without any loss of benefits.

Here, the Court rejected defendant’s argument that his mistaken belief that the complainant was his wife was a sufficient defense against a conviction of rape. The Court, relying on Article 31 of the Constitution, stated that both husband and wife enjoy equal rights in marriage and stated that the complainant’s dignity was trampled upon. The Court thus extends access to justice by construing the existing law on rape through the reasoning that the constitutional provisions on equality in marriage and the recognition of the equal dignity of women and men had effectively amended Sections 9 and 123 of the Penal Code. These sections at face exclude husbands from being held criminally liable for marital rape.

The plaintiff, a female Venezuelan citizen married to a female Venezuelan citizen, got married in Argentina, where LGBT marriage rights are fully granted to homosexual couples. In the following years, they tried to validate their marriage in Venezuela through a judicial homologation process. Such homologation was denied on the basis that the marriage regulations in Argentina did not comply with the provisions of Article 44 of the Venezuelan Civil Code, which regulates marriage rights in Venezuela and provides that “marriage cannot be entered into except between one single man and one single woman.” Thereafter, the couple conceived a child through the assisted reproduction method in Argentina, who was born and presented for registration as their son in Argentina. Immediately after the baby was born, the couple moved back to Venezuela, where they tried to present the newborn as their son to the Venezuelan competent authorities, requiring that the baby carried the surnames of both mothers. The registration was denied. The couple introduced a complaint before the competent court and the judge decided the registration of the boy was inadmissible. The plaintiff appealed this decision until it reached the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice (“TSJ”), Venezuelan’s highest judicial body, which decided to annul the decision of the lower court. The TSJ overruled the lower court’s decision on the basis that the decision violated the plaintiff’s right to present the child as an LGBTIQ couple’s child. Likewise, the TSJ stated that this action violated the child’s constitutional right to have an identity. The TSJ final decision was to allow the registration of the child with both mothers’ surnames.

The complainant was a Muslim woman who wore a hijab covering her hair. While the complainant and the respondent were in a residential elevator, the defendant made disrespectful remarks to the complainant about the complainant’s presumed religion.The two did not know each other – the complainant’s hijab was the only way for the defendant to identify her religion. The complainant sought an apology. Video evidence was submitted at trial from CCTV. Importantly, there was an additional individual in the lift. As a result of this witness, the tribunal was able to find that the defendant had committed a “public act” for the purposes of the Anti-Discrimination Act 1991 (Qld). However, the tribunal ultimately did not find for the complainant as the words used were determined by the tribunal to not, in fact, result in religious vilification as the additional individual in the lift did not react to the words. This case is relevant as it goes directly to ongoing discrimination women may face in Australia as a result of expressing their religion (through, for example, wearing a hijab).

The complainant worked as a Reservations Manager at the Raging Thunder Pty where both respondents, Cole and Ariel, were directors. The complainant became pregnant and went on maternity leave in agreement with the directors that she would return to the company at the same position after her maternity leave. Closer to the date when the complainant was about to return back from her maternity leave, she contacted Mr. Cole and discussed the possibility of returning on a part-time basis, but Mr. Cole informed her it was not possible for a managerial position to be part-time. The complainant tried to contact Mr. Cole again to inform him that she was willing to work full-time, but could not reach him, so she sent him the message through the receptionist. After several calls with Mr. Cole and without a definitive answer on her return date to work, Mr. Ariel called the complainant to inform her of a company restructuring and that her position was no longer available and that the two newly introduced positions were already filled by her colleagues. The complainant asked if they were going to offer any similar positions, but Mr. Ariel told her they had no more positions and he would not create one for her. The complainant suffered emotional distress and financial loss due to becoming redundant, therefore filed for this complaint seeking compensation. The complainant alleged that, due to her pregnancy and maternity leave, the respondents (i) failed to discuss the terms of her returning to work; (ii) failed to discuss her offer to work part-time;(iii) failed to appoint her in the new position of Call Center Manager and appointed Ms. S. instead; (iv) failed to appoint her in the new created position of 2IC and appointed Ms. G.; and, (v) failed to offer her an alternative position. The Anti-Discrimination Tribunal did not find the respondents liable for all of the complainant’s allegations, but ruled that the company and Mr. Ariel failed to offer the complainant the 2IC position after restructuring even though she was more experienced and familiar with this role than Ms. G., who was only covering for the complainant during her maternity leave. Thus, the Tribunal found that the reason for not offering this position to the complainant was due to her maternity leave. The company and Mr. Ariel also failed to offer the complainant any alternative position, again due to her maternity leave, and therefore her return was not considered while planning the restructuring of the company. The Tribunal found that respondents did not discriminate against complainant in conversations about her returning to work, in not discussing her offer to work part-time, in choosing to restructure, or in failing to appoint her in the Call Center Manager position under the Anti-Discriminatory Act 1991. However, the Tribunal did find that if complainant had not been on maternity leave at the time of the restructuring, she would have been offered the 2IC position, and that decision constituted pregnancy discrimination on the part of the first and third respondents. Also, the Tribunal found the failure to offer complainant a suitable alternative position constituted pregnancy discrimination. Therefore, the Tribunal ruled a compensation sum to be paid the complainant.

The respondent was a married aboriginal woman employed at the The Black Community Housing Service as a bookkeeper since 1985 and later as an Administrator until her resignation in August 1992. The first appellant became the director of the Housing Service in December 1990, and the second appellant was the employer, The Black Community Housing Service. The respondent started receiving calls from the appellant where he expressed his love to her and made inappropriate sexual remarks. The appellant also made inappropriate sexual remarks to the respondent when attending meetings together, on other occasions he gifted her “sexually explicit figurines,” and “touched her sexually suggestively on numbers of occasions.” The respondent did not confront the appellant in fear of losing her job, but she did complain to the board of directors who took no action against the appellant. Respondent filed a complaint against the appellant on the basis of sexual harassment and discrimination, and ultimately resigned when the board of directors would not remove appellant from his position while the investigation was underway. The Anti-Discrimination Tribunal found the claims of the respondent to be true. The Tribunal also learned that the employer did not have any policies on discrimination or sexual harassment, nor provided its employees with a training regarding the same. Since these are considered unlawful acts under the Anti-Discrimination Act 1991, the Tribunal ordered the employer and the appellant pay the respondent compensation for damages caused by the discrimination and sexual harassment. The first appellant filed this appeal stating that the Tribunal had no evidence that the respondent suffered any hurt and/or humiliation, nor that the respondent’s resignation was due to the behaviour of the appellant. The first appellant also objected on the compensation amount being “excessive in the circumstances.” The second appellant appealed, stating that the employer was not vicariously liable for the acts of the first appellant. The Supreme Court dismissed the appeal and affirmed the orders of the Tribunal.

The Supreme Federal Court of Brazil (STF) revoked the pretrial detention order issued against staff and patients of a clinic that was alleged to have been performing clandestine abortions. The 2ND Panel of STF found that criminal laws against abortion were unconstitutional with respect to the case in hand, and the criminalization of voluntary termination of pregnancy during the first three months was incompatible with the protection of multiple fundamental rights of women. The decision set an important precedent for the sexual and reproductive rights of women in Brazil. The court also discussed that the criminalization of abortion disproportionately affected women living in poverty who do not have access to private or public abortion clinics. Justice Barroso stated that while the potential life of the fetus is important, the criminalization of abortion before the end of the first three months of pregnancy violated several fundamental rights of women granted by the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 (personal autonomy, physical and mental integrity, sexual and reproductive rights, and gender equality). This decision does not decriminalize abortion in all circumstances, and it is not bidding. This is perhaps a softening of the law regarding abortion in Brazil.

O Supremo Tribunal Federal – STF desconstitui prisão de ofício emitida contra funcionários e donos de clinica de aborto presos em flagrante em razão de suposta prática de aborto clandestinos. A 2ª turma do STF entendeu que as leis criminais contra a prática do aborto são inconstitucionais em relação ao caso em análise, estabelecendo ainda que a criminalização do aborto voluntário durante os 3 (três) primeiros meses de gravidez era incompatível com múltiplos direitos fundamentais garantidos às mulheres. Nesse aspecto, trata-se de um precedente importante para os direitos sexuais e reprodutivos das mulheres no Brasil. Ainda a 2 turma do STF discutiu que a criminalização do aborto afeta, desproporcionalmente, as mulheres pobres que não têm acesso a clínicas privadas ou públicas. Ainda, o Ministro Barroso, relator do caso, estabelece que, enquanto a vida potencial de um feto é importante, a criminalização do aborto realizado dentro dos 3 meses iniciais da gravidez viola diversos direitos fundamentais garantidos constitucionalmente, como a autonomia, o direito à integridade física e mental, os direitos sexuais e reprodutivos, além da igualdade de gênero. Ressalta-se que essa decisão não descriminaliza o aborto em todas as circunstâncias, bem como não vincula o STF a emitir decisões com o mesmo posicionamento, apesar de se tratar de decisão favorável às mulheres no tocante a realização de aborto no Brasil.

A woman informed her employer of the fact that she was pregnant. Two months later, her employer fired her due to alleged restructuring of the company. Subsequently, the appellant started proceedings before the Court to receive an indemnity. The appellant claims that she has a right of indemnity based on the right of pregnant women to be protected against redundancy or, following the right to be protected against discrimination. The court held for the appellant and ordered the previous employer to pay the appellant a sum of EUR 33,135.00 and EUR 703.24 and to deliver to the appellant requested social documents.

The case concerned a challenge to the employer’s retrenchment policy. The applicant alleged that the criterion was discriminatory as substantially higher proportion of men could comply than women. Although the retrenchment applied to both sexes, there were fewer women in positions of seniority who were immune from the retrenchment because the employer had a history of discriminating in its hiring decisions. As such, the court found indirect discrimination because the retrenchment policy unlawfully maintained discriminatory circumstances.

The Constitutional Tribunal held that the conduct of the municipal authorities forcing a victim of gender violence to reconcile with her aggressor under the threat of taking her children to a shelter violates the right of women to live free from violence. The Tribunal held that this conduct constituted undue harassment.

El Tribunal Constitucional sostuvo que la conducta de las autoridades municipales, obligando a una víctima de violencia de género a reconciliarse con su agresor bajo la amenaza de llevar a sus hijos a un refugio es contra el derecho de las mujeres a vivir libres de violencia. El Tribunal sostuvo que esta conducta constituía indebida acoso.